A Guide to the Odyssey: A Commentary on the English Translation of Robert Fitzgerald

by Ralph J. Hexter;Robert Fitzgerald

  577 Artemis is using her arrows here not to bring sweet death to one of Eumaios’ fellow countrymen at the “sill of old age” but as punishment for an outrage against one of her devotees.

  611 When day comes: Starting tomorrow morning, that is. The feasting promised is offered to companions and crew as a sort of reward for a successfully completed voyage.

  614–65 The presence of Theoklýmenos permits an episode with multiple functions. The need to secure hospitality for a man who happens to be a seer permits Homer to integrate yet another reminder of the rotten behavior of the suitors with yet another omen that the house of Odysseus will prevail. Perhaps the most subtle and important aspect of the segment is the way Telémakhos’ current state of mind is presented. His first speech (621–35) begins as we might expect but develops (628–33) in a rather surprising manner: with great sarcasm, he suggests that Theoklýmenos seek hospitality with Eurýmakhos. (Some commentators, however, take this as a serious suggestion.)

  The words he heard from Athena as he lay awake at the beginning of this book (26–31) obviously still rankle. Or has his tone crossed from the sarcasm of grim determination to actual despair: Telémakhos sounds as if he’s on the verge of giving up. This may seem an odd reaction to having returned successfully from his trip, until we see, as he must too, that his success consists only in having escaped assassination. He has received no secure intelligence of his father’s whereabouts and is back where he started, with perhaps a greater desire to dislodge the suitors but no more idea how to do so. Telémakhos’ intentions and instincts are good, but his faith is as yet shallow. The conclusion to his speech (634–35) shows that he is capable of hope, but it is close to being merely a pious expression. However, the gods are at work to restore Odysseus (and justice) in Ithaka, and at this juncture an omen appears to shore up his son’s wavering spirit. Theoklýmenos is at hand to interpret it. With hopes raised (647–52), Telémakhos arranges for Theoklýmenos’ lodging with a trusted companion, Peiraios, thus fulfilling his duty as host and as prince (653–65).

  637, 642 on the right: See 198, above.

  640–646 Theoklýmenos / called him apart …: Theoklýmenos draws Telémakhos aside to reveal his interpretation of the omen, likely because he has heard enough about the situation in Ithaka to suspect that however well meaning the crew and companions on Telémakhos’ voyage, word of such an event, and of his open proclamation of support of the house of Odysseus, would certainly get back to ears who would be less pleased to hear it. Theoklýmenos will interpret this portent later in much more specific terms to Penélopê (XVII. 189–202).

  BOOK XVI

  Father and Son

  6–8 When Telémakhos came, the wolfish troop: The Greek presents a particularly sharp example of the flexibility of epithets: “the loud-barking dogs fawned on Telémakhos and did not bark as he approached” [4–5]. There is a good bit of sense in what only misguided literal-mindedness would find problematic: the dogs are normally loud barkers—a good characteristic in guard dogs—and thus their not barking at Telémakhos’ approach is notable indeed. Homer portrays the nearly infallible sense of animals when it comes to identifications. Note how they, and not Telémakhos, feel Athena’s presence (189–90). And Odysseus’ own hound will soon prove to be the only creature to pierce his master’s total disguise (XVII.375ff.).

  17ff. his tall son stood at the door: “His” indeed—but with the narrator’s matter-of-fact identification of Telémakhos, Homer makes us feel more deeply than if he had described outright what must have been a strong suspicion on Odysseus’ part that this is his son. Through this entire scene Homer, unmatched poet of the unspoken, leaves it for us to imagine (and thereby experience) the emotions that rise in Odysseus when it is confirmed that Telémakhos is actually before him. This becomes even more powerful because Odysseus remains unrecognized. He has the opportunity to take full measure of Telémakhos, whose every word and gesture to his retainer and the unknown beggar bespeaks unaffected nobility of character.

  Likewise, we are left to gauge once again the mark of Odysseus’ self-control by the silence he maintains for nearly a hundred lines. Only after Athena appears (182ff.) and instructs him to make himself known to Telémakhos (197–98) do we have the first great recognition scene, in which the emotions Odysseus has had to keep throttled burst forth. This provides a release point for the audience, too, for whom the strain of watching Odysseus maintain his disguise in the presence of his son is comparably intense. Homer’s strategy is emblematized early in the episode by the simile describing Eumaios’ joy at seeing Telémakhos (23–26): as no reader or listener could fail to note, the simile would in fact be more nearly adequate for Odysseus. The simile in context does more than describe the swineherd’s joy. The way Eumaios’ emotions are overtrumped by the presence of a better tenor, Odysseus, underscores the pathos of a situation in which the true father cannot openly claim that role. We note, however, with no prejudice against the estimable Eumaios—o my swineherd!—that it is unlikely Odysseus would ever let bowl and jug fall from his hands, spilling wine in the process (18–20).

  40 Uncle: atta ([31], likewise 67 [57], 152 [130], and XVII.7 [6]). Endearing terms for parents and grandparents often take such sonic shape in children’s mouths: “Nonna” for grandmother, Italian “Babbo.” (For further examples, see Russo in HWH 3.18–19 [on XVII.6].)

  44 some gloomy spider’s weaving: The image of a spider’s web to signify disuse is homespun indeed, but seems uncharacteristically poetic for Telémakhos, who is generally brief and to the point. We may wonder if Homer wasn’t also thinking at this point of Penélopê’s weaving, which at least for a time managed to keep the bed unused. (On her ploy, see II.101ff., above.) Clearly, mention of the marriage bed prepares for its importance in Book XXIII.

  54 friend: xein’ [44]; on guest-friendship, see VIII. 175, above.

  55 our: Not the “royal we.” This indicates instead that he considers himself a member of the household; it is what Stanford calls a “family plural” (2.265 [XVI.44]).

  56–58 The couch is made of branches and skins, as we are told most matter-of-factly. This is unself-conscious simplicity and rusticity.

  65–67 Telémakhos has politely waited to make inquiry about the guest until after the meal (see also III.46–55 and 75–76, above). It is also proper for him to offer Eumaios, as his official host, the first opportunity to identify his guest rather than ask the stranger directly.

  72–78 This might count as yet another version of Odysseus’ Kretan tales, though a summary at second hand. The irony of “the truth about him” (72) is broad.

  80–84, 99–105 Things are so bad that it seems Odysseus will not be able to enter his own home even disguised as a guest.

  108–30 The “stranger” is exceedingly polite as he begins to speak, but almost immediately we see how he goes about gathering intelligence on the attitudes of the other residents of Ithaka and above all Telémakhos’ spirit and character. The questions about an oracle or nonexistent brothers of Telémakhos function as part of his patter, but a more subtle point has been drawn from the latter. Odysseus’ queries here provoke Telémakhos’ explanation that he, like both his father and grandfather (134–39), is a single son. This points up the lack of those who would, in other situations, be ideal and natural allies against the suitors. “But it … also requires Odysseus to adopt the kind of clandestine strategy at which he excels and for which he can get all the glory” (Murnaghan, 61n.).

  160–79 Eumaios expresses concern for Laertes, who, as we already know (XV.434–40), has for some time been sick with grief both for his absent son and for the wife who died of that same grief. Now we learn that news of Telémakhos’ risky trip to the mainland has caused him to withdraw and worsen. Telémakhos will have word sent to him discreedy. This small exchange sets up a pattern with no little relevance for the conclusion of The Odyssey: things cannot be resolved until Laertes is brought back to full communion with life. Indeed, Telémakhos mentions th
e only balm that would help him: the return of Odysseus himself (172–73).

  164 his own folk: Members of his household rather than blood relatives (unless some of the slaves were his illegitimate children). In ancient Greek and Roman society, while relations among kin were carefully tracked and monitored, the “household” in terms of everyday life was the unit that most closely corresponded to our “family.” The word Eumaios uses for “folk” here [dmôôn, 140] is related to words for “house.” (In Latin, the word for “household” is familia.)

  189–90 See 6–8, above.

  195–201 Athena appears in splendor, not in the guise of some local girl or Ithakan elder. She speaks to Odysseus this time not with jokes and pleasantries but with impressive solemnity, as her formal salutation indicates (195–96). That the suitors are to die is her will and command, and she promises our hero that she will tip the overwhelming odds against him in his favor. The ineluctable movement toward the climactic slaughter in Book XXII has begun.

  211–18 Telémakhos’ thought is most likely the first any pious Greek would have, namely, that the old stranger who now appears so utterly transformed is a god who has cast off his own disguise. In other words, this is an epiphany. Telémakhos’ piety is clear throughout, particularly in the prayer and promise of gifts with which he concludes his brief speech.

  219 noble: Dios [186]—“divine” or “godlike”—is of course not used casually here. At the very moment Odysseus attempts to reveal himself without disguise, he is, ironically, still taken to be someone other than himself.

  223–24 Odysseus is finally free to greet Telémakhos as Eumaios had in lines 21–22. In the Greek the parallel is even clearer: behind Fitzgerald’s “embraced” is in fact “he kissed” [kuse, 190], so that we have an echo of both kisses and tears.

  225–35 Telémakhos’ reaction is plausible psychologically (of course!). But Telémakhos never shows himself to be more like his father than when he denies what has just been told him—as suspicious as Odysseus is, for example, in Book XIII. A chip off the old block.

  232–33 unless a god …: Telémakhos has hit upon the truth here, suggesting that he is prepared to believe Odysseus’ explanation of his transformation when it is offered at lines 245–51.

  238–41 Odysseus assumes the role of father for the first time, giving Telémakhos a mild reproof for behavior unbecoming a prince. He never offers (and never could offer) Telémakhos either a logical argument or a shared token to establish his identity. But emotions here are deeper than logic, and by speaking paternally, Odysseus makes Telémakhos recognize and accept him as his long-desired father. This permits him to let down his own guard and weep as a child can only in the arms of a parent (253ff.).

  245–51 This explains only the change of appearance and does not prove his identity (see 232–33 and 238–41, above). The pious proverb with which Odysseus concludes this little speech (250–51)—bromides like this were felt to be fitting caps to a speech—refers to the gods’ ability to do much more than change a mortal’s clothes or give him a face-lift.

  262–66 Telémakhos has sensed that the story Eumaios had been told and had summarized (72–78) is likely not the whole truth.

  269–70 Phaiákians … / as they give other wanderers: Alas, the present tense of “give” [pempousin, 228] no longer holds true, because of the disaster Odysseus brought upon them, although he has no way of knowing it (see XIII. 171–235, a story that well exemplifies the truth of XVI.250–51). In this small detail, then, what Odysseus tells Telémakhos is not as true as he thinks, although for once Odysseus intends to tell the truth.

  273–74 bronze and gold / and stores of woven things: Tricolon crescendo, filling one full line in Greek [231]. (See also III. 117–20 and XI.294–95, above.)

  285–87 Telémakhos could have heard this from many sources, among which were of course the epic songs of bards.

  308–19 There is much more to the exchange here than the battle-scarred and ever-victorious veteran talking to an untried and less-than-confident tyro. The point of Odysseus’ first response is that Athena and Zeus will be fighting on their side (308–10). Telémakhos, for all his sincere piety, still has doubts—unconscious as he is of having received divine assistance—that the gods actively concern themselves with human affairs (312–15). Odysseus has experienced it, often, and on the field of battle: his response (317–19), brief and to the point, is the most convincing rejoinder he could make. Telémakhos will experience it. There are still many things for father to teach son.

  331–32 From Odysseus’ point of view, having heard Athena’s death sentence on the suitors, he is assured that they are doomed not only in his eyes but in those of the gods. Hence the tone of ineluctable fate, even predestination.

  339–52 Odysseus leaves nothing to chance. He is not satisfied to have instructed Telémakhos to remove the arms displayed in the hall (337ff.) but also tells Telémakhos exactly what story to give the suitors if they question him. Odysseus knows that no one can cook up such plausible lies as well as he can. Indeed, he comes up with not one but two lies. Here Odysseus is seeing to Telémakhos’ education in rhetoric and, especially, dissembling.

  350–51 Tempered / iron can magnetize a man: Another proverb to cap a speech (see 245–51, above), translated later as “Iron / itself can draw men’s hands” (XIX. 16–17). It has long been debated whether Homer, in saying that iron “attracts” or “draws on a man” [294], was actually thinking of the metal’s magnetic properties. It’s not impossible, but I prefer to take it more figuratively, as we do when we call certain dangers “attractive nuisances.” (It can’t be entirely literal, for the only men iron could magnetize would be iron men.) I am more sympathetic to the view that sees magnetism as one of the properties of iron which caused the new metal to be regarded as magical (see Russo in HWH 3.75 [on XIX. 13]).

  357 our young friends: In the Greek, simply “them” [297]. Telémakhos of course is younger than the suitors.

  359 If son … and blood of mine: A powerful injunction. Telémakhos will want nothing more than to show himself worthy of his great father.

  363–64 … how far the women are corrupted: This lays the groundwork for the execution of the treacherous maidservants at the end of Book XXII.

  380–81 … a scrutiny / of cottagers: Telémakhos’ suggestion to put off testing all the householders of Ithaka is a good one. The bad serving maids are traitors to Odysseus’ house: not only are they more easily observed and punished, but the status of each—loyal or treacherous—is less susceptible to ambiguities. Although we do not see the testing of all householders carried out in anything like the form implied by Odysseus, the issue of their loyalty is resolved in Book XXIV along with the composition (i.e., settlement) of all the feuds arising from the suitors’ mass murder. In their response to Odysseus and Telémakhos’ punishment of their relatives, the men of Ithaka test themselves, as it were (see especially the assembly, XXIV.455–520).

  382–83 In his last words, Telémakhos shows that he has been moved to defer to Odysseus’ living faith in the power of the gods to assist them.

  385 We now rejoin Telémakhos’ ship, last mentioned at the end of Book XV, when Telémakhos had disembarked to make for Eumaios’ hut.

  417 we said he could not: This has of course a darker undertone: “we declared he would not,” in other words, “we would see that he did not.”

  435 All others: An exclusive meeting of the suitors, no other Ithakans allowed (not all the suitors are Ithakan, of course: see 294–300).

  449–93 Telémakhos’ escape from ambush at sea does not guarantee his future safety. On the contrary, Antínoös seems more resolved than ever to do away with him, and his insistence in this speech that the suitors should murder Telémakhos, and soon, raises the possibility that even as Odysseus and Telémakhos make their plans on the basis of the suitors’ well-established habits, the suitors may initiate a new and unpredictable offensive (see XVII. 189–202, below). After a speech like this, we are
prepared to feel it is only just that Antínoös is the first suitor to die (XXII.8–21).

  453–59 his people are all tired of playing up to us …: For this reason the exclusion of Ithakans was necessary (see 435, above). At the same time, we infer that there are many Ithakans prepared to take Telémakhos’ side against the suitors if called to do so, laying the ground for the composition of all quarrels in Book XXIV. Not all of the suitors are prepared to go as far as Antínoös (see 478–92, immediately below).

  478–92 Amphínomos has good intentions but not the strength of character to oppose the suitors to the end. He would prefer not to commit murder but doesn’t want to fall out with the whole pack. (Note the qualification of 485–88: it’s not murder but royal assassination which sticks in his craw.) Hence his proposal: consult an oracle, and if Zeus gives the command to kill Telémakhos, then, so he claims, he’ll do it. Such a message from Zeus’ oracles is hardly likely. Amphínomos is probably not thinking of that so much as hoping to put off having to take sides. Granted, he is the only man courageous enough to speak up, but for all that he is a coward. It may indeed be fear of the gods that moved him to object in the first place. (For further reflections on this problem, see XVII.631–38, below.) Even lukewarm opposition to evil is punished, and Amphínomos will die at Telémakhos’ hand (XXII.98–101).