The Garments of Salvation

by Krista West

  Figure 6. Large Normandy brocade (courtesy of LaLame, Inc.).

  In Figure 7, a new variation of the design is shown, in which the borders now take up the entire secondary space, forming undulating waves as well as the illusion of a monochrome background against which the now-oval medallions are set:

  Figure 7. Silk twill, Turkey, 16–17th century (Adele Coulin Weibel, Two Thousand Years of Textiles, Pantheon Books, Plate 155).

  Viewing two samples of Venetian brocades in Figures 8 and 9, we see the border now becoming almost the primary design element with the medallions seeming to recede, and the secondary spaces now the same size as the medallions and either containing the same design motif or providing an alternate design motif:

  Figures 8. & 9. Silk brocades, Venice, 15th century (Ernst Flemming, Encyclopedia of Textiles, Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., 77).

  From this beginning roundel design and its variations as shown in the above figures, there may be observed in Byzantine silks and their close cousins, the Italian, French, and Turkish brocades that followed, a basic design structure of three elements: first, some kind of primary medallion, either roundel, oval, or quatrefoil; second, the border around the primary medallion; and third, the secondary motifs that fill the spaces between the primary medallions, or in the case of the later development, become the same as the primary medallion. This basic design structure was to undergo a further development in which the primary medallions became significantly larger and even more oval in shape and the borders stretched and widened to become elaborate vine and floral work intertwining the primary motif rather than strictly confining it. An example of a French silk from the seventeenth century in Figure 10 demonstrates this development:

  Figure 10. Silk brocade, France, 17th century (Ernst Flemming, Encyclopedia of Textiles, Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., 162).

  The primary medallion can still be seen, but its borders have been “exploded” into a riot of vines and floral work. While the example shown above is French, this type of design was often manufactured in Venice and other parts of Italy and is occasionally referred to in modern parlance as a “Venetian” design. These brocade designs are still used today for some of the highest-quality vestments due to their superior level of quality, their metal thread content, and their complex coloration. Photos from the monasteries of Mount Athos frequently depict the most ascetic of monastics in these rich and heavy brocades worn for special feast days and important processions. One of the reasons these Venetian brocades have enjoyed such favor in Orthodox Christian usage is due to the fact that the Venetian silk industry followed the historic Byzantine designs more closely and for a much longer period of time than did other European centers of textile production.27

  Figure 11. Satin brocade, Venice, early 18th century (Adele Weibel, Two Thousand Years of Textiles, Pantheon Books, Plate 255).

  A consideration of the history of brocade design as it pertains to Orthodox Christian liturgical usage would not be complete without a mention of the quest for realism in art that began in the Renaissance, a search that was not limited solely to the art of painting, but also eventually influenced textile design as well as evinced by Figure 11. The realism portrayed in this brocade, with its lifelike fronds and lush, overblown flowers, is nearly photographic, and it is most likely due to the naturalistic aesthetic sensibility, so foreign to the Byzantine preference for symbols and multiple layers of meaning, that this type of brocade never became popular in Orthodox Christian vestment usage.

  Figure 12. Icon of the Three Holy Hierarchs (Hagiographer: Monk Michael, courtesy of Asperges & Co., www.asperges.com).

  Ornamented brocades such as those we have examined were the predominant textiles used for historic Orthodox Christian vestments and continue to make up the largest category of textiles used today in Orthodox Christian churches; however, there is another textile design worthy of mention, the famous polystavros design depicted in icons such as the “Three Holy Hierarchs” in Figure 12. The polystavros was introduced into ecclesiastical use sometime in the eleventh or twelfth century. Its use was, at first, apparently restricted to patriarchs and metropolitans, but in time it came to be used by the episcopate in general and much later by presbyters and deacons.28

  While the polystavros design can appear to the uninitiated as nothing more than a dizzying geometric puzzle of squares within squares, its design actually references the command given in Exodus 28.4 that the Old Testament high priest wear a tunic of “checkerwork” (i.e., a “net-like” design, LXX χιτῶνα κοσυμβωτóν), a reference that surely would not have been lost on the more educated citizens of Constantinople, steeped in knowledge of the Scriptures as they were. The polystavros is not only a design imbued with spiritual significance on account of the portrayal of so many crosses, it is also a continuation one of the most ancient weaving patterns known to mankind. Throughout the history of textiles, checkerwork designs, from the polystavros all the way back to the earliest-known textile fragments with their plaid-like designs, may be seen to be universal, appearing in nearly every ancient culture in one form or another. In true Eastern fashion, this imbues yet another layer of meaning, that of the Orthodox Christian priest being clothed in the ancient, universal garments of humanity.

  Galloon

  Virtually all Orthodox Christian liturgical garments (and most paraments) are finished with galloon, a metallic banding that is woven with patterns and colors designed to coordinate with the fabric it frames. Because galloon is necessary to finish the raw edges of the brocade and lining, it is integral to the proper finishing of vestments and forms an intrinsic part of the overall aesthetic of Orthodox Christian liturgical dress. A well-chosen galloon is harmonious with the brocade and, while some galloons have minimal motifs such as a monochrome, geometric pattern, others can be replete with a wide variety of symbols as is shown in Figure 13.

  Figure 13. A sampling of galloons: the one on the far right is considered an “outline” galloon while the others are considered “contrast” galloons.

  While the combinations of galloons and brocades can be almost endless, there tend to be two general aesthetic categories: those that simply outline the brocade in an aesthetically neutral fashion by “framing” the fabric (these galloons have simple geometric patterns such as diagonal lines or tiny checkerwork patterns), and those that contrast with the brocade either by their elaborate pattern or their contrasting color. The first category is fairly straightforward and would encompass such combinations as a red brocade finished with an all-gold geometric galloon (seen on the far right of Figure 13), but the second category is much broader and, for ultimate effect, should be selected by a tailor with a good knowledge of the available brocade designs and galloon symbols in order to achieve the desired contrast while still maintaining a harmonious whole. The small sampling of galloons in Figure 13 shows a variety of symbol patterns used in galloons—grapes and leaves, crosses in circles on a “net” of fish scales (an early Byzantine motif), interlocking crosses with miniscule knotwork borders (a border within a border), interlaced circles inside zigzag borders, a wavy leaf pattern alternating with floral sprays, and a simple diagonal geometric.

  The importance of the proper galloon in finishing Orthodox Christian textiles cannot be overstated. Almost thirty yards of galloon are used on a set of priest’s or deacon’s vestments and this seemingly inconsequential finishing detail provides a large portion of the overall aesthetic effect of the finished vestments. Proper galloon selection truly “makes or breaks” a set of vestments. Suitably combining the pattern of a galloon with the overall design of a brocade requires a knowledge of available designs of each, an awareness of complementary symbol patterns (e.g., it would be jarring to pair an early-Byzantine, fish-scale galloon with a Venetian brocade), and expertise at mixing the various colors of brocades and galloons so that the final combination does not clash, but achieves the desired, harmonious blend.

  When properly selected and applied, an intricate, symbolically rich gal
loon takes even a rather simple brocade and raises it to new heights. This distinctive feature of bordering Orthodox Christian vesture with another layer of symbols brings to mind the earliest types of decoration known to mankind and provides yet more evidence of the multi-faceted quality that is an essential element of Orthodox Christian adornment.

  Liturgical Textile Symbols

  Now that we have explored the overall design structure of the types of brocades used for Orthodox Christian liturgical purposes, it remains for us to discuss specific symbolic motifs used within such textiles. Textile symbols have been employed across a wide range of history and cultures, so the overview presented here represents only a portion of the myriad motifs used throughout the Church’s history.

  Knotwork

  As seen above, knotwork and interlacing are used abundantly in liturgical textiles, outlining certain designs and providing the main decorative scheme of others. These are possibly the most ancient of all symbols and were first used in ancient Mesopotamian art. Through frequent use on textiles, the knot design motif spread rapidly through many cultures from Persia to ancient Greece and Rome, Egypt, and even as far afield as the Celts. Byzantine art features a profusion of beautiful interlacings which can be seen on everything from manuscripts and chalices to the borders of floor and ceiling mosaics. These complex arrangements of unending knots, cables, and ropes grace many textiles, lending fluidity, visual movement, and intricacy.

  Cross

  The cross, the quintessential symbol of Christendom, is so familiar and expected on liturgical textiles that one almost need not mention it. The cross is combined with virtually every other Christian symbol to create a vast number of designs. Crosses used in vestment fabrics range in style from very geometric, early Byzantine versions, to more augmented styles of the mid- to late-Byzantine periods, progressing to far more elaborate, Italianate varieties.

  The power of the cross was, and still is, evoked to keep evil forces at bay and put the wearer or viewer ever in remembrance of the suffering of Christ. It is the symbol of redemption par excellence in that the implement of a humiliating and horrendous form of execution has been transformed by Christ’s death and resurrection into the greatest sign of victory and triumph known to Christianity.

  Monograms

  As many manuscripts, stone carvings, and metal objects amply demonstrate, the Byzantines loved monograms and they used these symbolic arrangements of letters in textiles as well. A variety of Christological monograms have been used for many centuries such as the ChiRho (the first two letters of “Christ” in Greek), the Iota Chi (the first letters of “Jesus Christ”), the Alpha and Omega, and the “IC XC NIKA” (“Jesus Christ conquers”) as well as various combinations of these such as the Iota Chi with the Alpha and Omega or the Chi Rho with the Alpha and Omega.

  Figure 14. Stone carving designs from Sant’ Appolinare in Ravenna, Italy with monogram designs (Arne Dehli, Treasury of Byzantine Ornament: 255 Motifs from St. Mark’s and Ravenna, Dover Publications, 77).

  Monograms provide literary overtones to a brocade design and are often worked in rather ingenuous ways, sprouting from urns of flowers, forming the center design of the meeting point of borders, and even serving as the central medallion in some roundel designs.

  Figure 15. Polyester brocade, Greece, 2012, showing close-up of woven monogram.

  Floral Designs—Carnations, Palmettes, Roses/Hearts, Lilies, Trees, Lotus, etc.

  Intermixed with all of the above symbols and forming a consistent backdrop to them is an amazing array of various floral patterns. Floral designs have their origins in the abundance symbols of the ancient world but have taken on deeper, more spiritual significance with their incorporation into Orthodox Christian liturgical textiles. Flower designs such as the carnation, palmette, roses (occasionally referred to as hearts—see below), laurels, acanthus leaves, lilies, and even trees, have all been featured to bring to mind the flowering of Christianity, the abundance of God’s mercy, and the natural beauty of the world as a foreshadowing of the surpassing beauty of Heaven. These elements bring to mind Paradise and man’s communion with God before the Fall, how the Mother of God is the “flower of humanity,” and how our spirits blossom in the light of God’s loving grace. It was inevitable that floral patterns, capable of bearing so much symbolic freight, should take a prominent place among the venerable symbols of the Church. A distinctive feature of the Orthodox Christian aesthetic tradition is its ability to embrace floral patterns from various cultures and locales and harmoniously interweave them. It is not uncommon to see a laurel leaf border, the pre-eminent sign of victory in ancient Rome, side-by-side with the palmette spray of ancient Egypt or the rose favored in Byzantium. Traditional Orthodox Christian culture has never been uncomfortable with mixing disparate elements into a harmonious whole.

  The rose motif is one of the most fascinating of floral patterns with an interesting debate surrounding its proper identification. This motif is best seen in Figure 6 in the primary medallion: in the floral sprays that fill the quatrefoil medallion, the roses are the portion of the flower that is cupped between the two leaves (these four floral sprays when taken together form the arms of a floral “cross”). The base portion of this flower looks very similar to the heart motif that is found on an ordinary pack of playing cards. While Byzantine art scholar, O. M. Dalton in his classic tome Byzantine Art and Archaeology propounds that such floral motifs originated from the top of the palmette,29 another scholar of design, W.R. Lethaby, the first Professor of Design at the Royal College of Art in London, gives an alternate explanation of the origin of this motif:

  The roses in this kind of border have been called hearts, or degraded palmettes, but if several examples are compared it becomes plain that they are really roses. . . . The roses in profile are represented like a single heart-shaped petal, but the leaves, the colour, and the association with the full roses make the intention certain. These rose patterns are specially characteristic of late Hellenistic and early Coptic art.30

  Figure 16. Acanthus leaf (Arne Dehli, Treasury of Byzantine Ornament: 255 Motifs from St. Mark’s and Ravenna, Dover Publications, 48).

  Whether deriving from a palmette top or the roses that most likely grew abundantly in the warm, Mediterranean climate, the rose motif is frequently used due to its great adaptability and strong line. In some instances it is used without any surrounding leaves, and then it becomes another type of geometric border.

  Intertwining and filling many textile designs are the acanthus leaf and the palmette. Their basic shape can be seen in Figures 16 and 17:

  Figure 17. Palmette (Natascha Kubisch and Pia Anna Seger, Ornaments: Patterns for Interior Decoration, Konemann, 49).

  These remarkably flexible motifs are lavishly used in textile designs across many cultures and artistic periods. As can be viewed in the above figures, there is similarity of overall structure between these two motifs and Dalton asserts that, “the acanthus developed out of the palmette, the palmette being first ‘acanthized’ and the complete acanthus following later. . . .”31 Because the acanthus and palmette form the backdrop of so many textiles, their presence is easy to miss, but when one scrutinizes various liturgical textiles, their vining patterns can be frequently seen, as is the case in Figure 6 which displays a tiny acanthus leaf pattern inside the border of the quatrefoil medallion. Both of these designs became the stuff of high art when utilized by the ever-creative Byzantines, as the manuscript borders of Figures 18 and 19 show. Due to their continual presence in liturgical textiles, it is understood that the acanthus and palmette must have been one of the most common of “cross-over” motifs amongst the variety of the Byzantine arts.

  Figure 18. Acanthus leaf border (T. Vaboulis, Byzantine Decorative Art, Papadimitriou Publications, 66).

  Figure 19. Byzantine manuscript with confronted palmette motif (T. Vaboulis, Byzantine Decorative Art, Papadimitriou Publications, 58).

  Similar to these vining leaves and flowers, trees and other p
lants were commonly used in textile design. While sometimes ascribed to a Persian origin, this type of motif is often found on Coptic linens embellished with tapestry-weaving, and silks of the early Christian period.32

  Birds and Animals

  While bird and animal motifs had their origin in the abundance symbols of the ancient world, they came to be highly prized symbols, not only showcasing the weaver’s skill but anchoring a design by their complexity and visual interest. Yet such symbols were not purely decorative fillers. For instance, the pelican that is often used in Orthodox Christian liturgical designs carried strong Christological and Eucharistic associations due to the wide-spread belief (attributed to Aristotle) that the mother pelican pierces her own breast to draw blood with which to feed her young.

  Birds, with their gift of flight, were associated with the heavenly realm and frequently used as symbols of Paradise. This explains why it is common to see liturgical designs featuring an urn or fountain with confronted birds. Peacocks, with their remarkable coloring, were a favored symbol of immortality. The stonecarving in Figure 14 shows an elegant use of confronted peacocks on either side of a ChiRho and Alpha and Omega monogram, a complex, but utterly sublime mixture of the various motifs used within the Orthodox Christian Church.

  The use of bird motifs in liturgical brocades today tends to be limited to either the lightweight, machine-embroidered type of vestments (which can feature peacocks or pelicans in roundels alternating with cross motifs as well as an arrangement very similar to the peacocks in Figure 14, confronted on either side of a cross) or a very small handful of metallic brocades based upon early Byzantine roundel designs which feature either peacocks or pelicans in the roundel.