Imagined Empires

by Zeinab Abul-Magd

  45. See, for example, Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, 18 Shawwal 1260; and p. 129, 15 Jumada al-Awwal 1260, both in NAE.

  46. Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 96, Part 1, Case 102, p. 48, 30 Shawwal 1253, NAE.

  47. Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 96, Part 1, Case 237, p. 121, 22 Jumada al-Awwal 1254; Sijill 97, Part 1, Case 12, p. 3, 2 Safar 1255, both in NAE.

  48. Mudiriyyat Qina Court, Sijill Murafa‘at 1, Case 11, p. 12, 25 Jumada al-Awwal 1262, NAE.

  49. For examples of cases of elite intermarriages, see Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 94, Part 1, Case 275, p. 281, 12 Ramadan 1252; Sijill 96, Part 1, Case 38, p. 18, 22 Muharram 1254; Sijill 96, Case 73, p. 35, 9 Safar 1254; Sijill 96, Case 323, pp. 168–69, 17 Sha‘ban 1254; Sijill Ishhadat 94, Part 1, Case 63, p. 192, 7 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1252; Sijill Ishhadat 94, Case 155, p. 230, 12 Jumada al-Awwal 1252; Sijill 96, Part 1, Case 104, p. 51, 24 Safar 1254; and Sijill 96, Case 109, p. 53, 1 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1254, all in NAE.

  50. Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 94, Part 1, Case 247, p. 270, 14 Sha‘ban 1252. For more examples, see Sijillat Sadir and Warid Mudiriyyat, Qina and Isna, 1260–64; Isna Court, Sijills Ishhadat 94–97, 1252–56; Isna Court, Sijill 94, Part 1, Case 121, pp. 213–15, 9 Rabi‘ al-Thani 1252; Isna Court, Sijill 95, Part 1, Case 38, p. 21, 5 Dhu al-Hijja 1253; Isna Court, Sijill 95, Case 43, p. 23, 4 Dhu al-Hijja 1253; Isna Court, Sijill 96, Part 1, Case 102, p. 48, end of Shawwal 1253; Isna Court, Sijill 95, Part 1, Case 2, pp. 1–2, 22 Ramadan 1253; Qina Court, Sijill Murafa‘at, Cases 384–92, p. 88, 1 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1262; Qina Court, Sijill Murafa‘at, Case 91, p. 23, 15 Sha‘ban 1262, all in NAE.

  51. See Sadir Mudiriyyat, Qina and Isna, 1261–63; Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 94, Part 1, Case 247, p. 270, 14 Sha‘ban 1252, both in NAE.

  52. For example, see Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 95, Part 1, Case 2, pp. 1–2, 22 Ramadan 1253, NAE.

  53. File “Sadir ‘Ardhalat Mufattish ‘Umum Qibli,” p. 385, 16 Rabi‘ al-Thani 1263, NAE. Bureaucrats did not enjoy property rights to these lands, which were still state property. This would change when the regime introduced private property laws.

  54. Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, p. 7, 1 and 3 Ramadan 1260; p. 12, 23 Ramadan 1260; and p. 389, 2 Jumada al-Thani 1260, all in NAE.

  55. Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, p. 129, 15 Jumada al-Awwal 1260; Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, p. 15, 6 Jumada al-Awwal 1260, both in NAE.

  56. See, for example, Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, p. 13, 15 Jumada al-Awwal 260, NAE.

  57. Ma‘iyya Saniyya, Turkish, Microfilm 24, p. 45, 17 Jumada al-Akhir 1251, NAE.

  58. See Sadir and Warid Mudiriyyat, Qina and Isna, Sijills, 1260–64, NAE.

  59. See Ma‘iyya Saniyya, Turkish, Daftars 80–85; and Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, Ramadan 1260, both in NAE.

  60. Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, p. 367, 23 Jumada al-Awwal 1261, NAE. See also Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, p. 168, 19 Safar 1260, NAE.

  61. Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, Part 2, p. 387, 1261, NAE.

  62. Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, p. 322, 10 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1261, NAE. Also see Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, p. 149, 9 Safar 1260, NAE.

  63. For example, the pasha adopted the term al-ahali in his then newly published official gazette, Al-Waqa’i‘ al-Misriyya (49) (8 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1245).

  64. Antonio Gramsci’s concept of hegemony refers to the modern state use of certain institutions in subjugating the ruled classes to the ruling elite, who promote their interests as the interests of all, or as the greater good, by subtle and inclusive control over the economy rather than by force. Gramsci considered the legislature, judiciary, and executive institutions “naturally . . . organs of political hegemony, but in different degrees.” Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks (New York: International Publishers, 1971), 246.

  65. Muhammad Khalil Subhi, Tarikh al-Haya al-Niyabiyya fi Misr (Cairo: Matba‘at Dar al-Kutub al-Misriyya, 1947), 4:9–11; Sami, Taqwim al-Nil, 2:598. See also the minutes of the council’s sessions in Al-Waqa’i‘ al-Misriyya, issues of years 1245–49.

  66. Sami, Taqwim al-Nil, 2:351–52.

  67. For example, see Al-Waqa’i‘ al-Misriyya, 8 Ramadan 1247, 15 Shawwal 1247, 8 Dhu al-Qi‘ada 1247, 22 Shawwal 1247, and 19 Rajab 1247.; Najm, Zayn al-‘Abidin Shams al-Din (ed.), Daftar Majmu‘ ’Idara wa-’Ijra’at, 1240–1280/1825–1863 (Watha’iq Tarikh Misr wa-l-’Arab al-Hadith) (Cairo: Dar al-Fikr al-‘Arabi, 2003), 21 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1245, pp. 402–3. See also Sami, Taqwim al-Nil, 377–79; and La’ihat Zira‘at al-Fallah wa-Tadbir ’Ahkam al-Siyasa bi-Qasd al-Falah (Cairo: Matba‘at Sahib al-Sa‘ada, 1829), 20.

  68. Qanun al- Siyasatnama, in Subhi, Tarikh al-Hayah al-Niyabiyya, 5:40–75. See also F. Robert Hunter, Egypt under the Khedives, 1805–1879: From Household Government to Modern Bureaucracy (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1984), 17–32.

  69. Ma‘iyya Saniyya, Arabic, Microfilm 24, 17 Safar 1245, 7 Shawwal 1251, end of Muharram 1252, and 5 Safar 1252, NAE. During this period, Upper Egypt was divided into two provinces, and the southern one, Nisf Thani Qibli, included Qina and Isna and their rural vicinities.

  70. See Zayn al-‘Abidin Shams al-Din Najm, ’Idarat al-’Aqalim fi Misr, 1805–1882 (Cairo: Dar al-Kitab al-Jami‘i, 1988), 128–32.

  71. For example, see Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 94, Part 1, Case 199, p. 250, 5 Rajab 1252; Sijill 95, Part 1, Case 98, p. 62, 28 Dhu al-Qi‘da 1253; and Sijill 96, Part 1, Case 2, p. 4, 25 Safar 1254, and Case 3, p. 4, 25 Safar 1254, and Case 102, p. 48, end of Shawwal 1253, and Case 143, p. 71, 18 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1254, all in NAE.

  72. Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 94, Part 1, Case 100, p. 204, 3 Rabi‘ al-Thani 1252, and Case 176, p. 75, 5 Jumada al-Awwal 1252; Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 97, Part 1, Case 139, pp. 82–83, Rabi‘ al-Akhir 1255, all in NAE.

  73. ‘Abbas et al., al-’Awamir wa-l-Mukatabat, 2:114, 24 Rajab 1253.

  74. Ibid., 2:30, 14 Rajab 1251.

  75. Ibid., 2:99, end of Muharram 1252.

  76. Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, 18 Shawwal 1260, NAE.

  77. Warid Mudiriyyat, Isna, p. 30, 25 Shawwal 1263, NAE.

  78. Sadir ‘Ardhalat Mufattish ‘Umum Qibli, p. 385, 16 Rabi‘ al-Thani 1263, NAE; ‘Ali Mubarak, Al-Khitat al-Tawfiqiyya, 9:217.

  79. ‘Abbas et al., Al-’Awamir wa-l-Mukatabat, 2:308.

  80. Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 94, Part 1, Case 356, p. 320, 22 Dhu al-Qi‘da 1252, NAE.

  81. Sadir ‘Ardhalat Mufattish ‘Umum Qibli, p. 347, 9 Rabi‘ Thani 1263, NAE. Records do not show how the case was concluded and whether the state punished the transgressing shaykhs and bureaucrat.

  82. Qina Court, Sijill Murafa‘at, Case 249, p. 57, 29 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1263, NAE.

  83. See Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, years 1260–63, NAE. For example, see Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, p. 7, 1 and 3 Ramadan 1260; p. 12, 23 Ramadan 1260; p .389, 2 Jumada al-Thani 1260; and p. 368, 23 Jumada al-Awwal 1261, all in NAE.

  84. Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, p. 7, 3 Ramadan 1260; p. 19, 5 Ramadan 1260; p. 29, 6 Ramadan 1260; p. 19, 23 Ramadan and 12 Shawwal 1260, all in NAE.

  85. Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, p. 399, 4 Rajab 1261, NAE.

  86. Sadir Mudiriyyat, Qina, p. 214, 17 Rabi ‘ al-Awwal 1262, NAE; ‘Ali Mubarak, Al-Khitat al-Tawfiqiyya, 12:135.

  87. Sadir Mudiriyyat, Qina, p. 301, 4 Sha‘ban 1262, NAE.

  88. Sadir Mudiriyyat, Qina, p. 271, 24 Jumada al-Thani 1262, NAE.

  89. Qina Court, Sijill Murafa‘at, Case 100, p. 26, 7 Muharram 1263, NAE.

  90. Sadir Mudiriyyat, Qina, p. 209, 11 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1262, NAE.

  91. Sadir Mudiriyyat, Qina, p. 256, 1 Jumada al-Thani 1262; p. 296, 25 Rajab 1262; and p. 323, 15 Ramadan 1262, all in NAE. See also ‘Ali Mubarak, Al-Khitat al-Tawfiqiyya, 11:32–33.

  CHAPTER 4: “COMMUNIST” REBELLION

  1. Lucie Austin Duff-Gordon, Letters from Egypt (London: Macmillan, 1865), 341–42.

  2. Ibid., 345–69.

  3. See, for example, from liberal historiography, Niall Ferguson, Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power (New York: Basi
c Books, 2003); and David Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor (New York: W.W. Norton, 1999). And from Marxist historiography, see Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World-System (New York: Academic Press, 1974–).

  4. Niall Ferguson, Colossus: The Price of America’s Empire (New York: Penguin, 2004), 10.

  5. Ibid., 25–26.

  6. See Giovanni Arrighi, The Long Twentieth Century (London: Verso, 2002); and Giovanni Arrighi, “The Three Hegemonies of Historical Capitalism,” Review, Summer 1990, 365–408.

  7. For dependency theory, see Andre Gunder Frank, Dependent Accumulation and Underdevelopment (London: Macmillan, 1978); and Samir Amin, Imperialism and Unequal Development (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1977). For world-system theory, see Wallerstein, Modern World-System, vol. 3.

  8. See, for example, Roger Owen, The Middle East in the World Economy, 1800–1914 (London: I.B. Tauris, 1993), chapter 5; Charles Issawi, An Economic History of the Middle East and North Africa (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982); and Amin, Imperialism and Unequal Development.

  9. See Owen, Middle East in World Economy, 122–26.

  10. Amin Sami, Taqwim al-Nil, vol. 1 (Cairo: Matba‘at Dar al-Kutub al-Misriyya, 1936), part 3, 80.

  11. Duff-Gordon, Letters from Egypt, 332. Also see Sadir Mudiriyyat Qina, year 1275, NAE.

  12. Sadir Mudiriyyat Qina, Part 10, p. 9, 29 Safar 1279; Part 1, p. 34, 4 Safar 1275; Part 2, Safar 1275; Part 7, p. 88, 15 al-Hijja 1278; and Madabit Majlis al-Ahkam, Sadir al-Aqalim al-Qibliyya, Microfilm 367, p. 6, 19 Muharram 1276, all in NAE.

  13. For example, Sadir Mudiriyyat Qina, p. 118, 13 Sha‘ban 1270, NAE.

  14. Sadir Mudiriyyat Qina, Part 7, p. 88, 15 Dhu al-Hijja 1278; Part 2, Safar 1275; Part 7, p. 90, 19 Dhu al-Hijja 1278, all in NAE.

  15. See, for example, Sadir Mudiriyyat Qina, Part 2, p. 12, Safar 1275; and Sadir Mudiriyyat Qina, 1272, both in NAE.

  16. Zayn al-‘Abidin Sham al-Din Najm (ed.), Daftar Majmu‘ ’Idara wa-’Ijra’at, 1240–1280/1825–1863 (Watha’iq Tarikh Misr wa-l-‘Arab al-Hadith) (Cairo: Dar al-Fikr al-‘Arabi, 2003), 401.

  17. See Sadir Mudiriyyat Qina, year 1270, NAE.

  18. For example, see Farshut Court, Sijill Ishhadat 1, p. 3, Jumada al-Thani 1273; and Farshut and Naj‘ Hammadi Courts, Sijill Ishhadat 1, Case 516, p. 56, 14 Muharram 1274, both in NAE. Salam is a type of credit contract accepted by shari‘a law and was a common practice in rural areas in the Muslim world.

  19. Duff-Gordon, Letters from Egypt, 45; ‘Ali Mubarak, Al-Khitat al-Tawfiqiyya al-Jadida li-Misr al-Qahira (Cairo: al-Hay’a al-Misriyya al-‘Amma lil-Kitab, 1994), 8:175. An example of wives suing their husbands for failure to support the household with enough food is Farshut and Naj‘ Hammadi Courts, Sijill 2, Case 3, p. 1, 12 Jumada al-Awwal 1273, NAE.

  20. Madabit Majlis al-Ahkam, Sadir al-Aqalim al-Qibliyya, Microfilm 367, p. 6, 19 Muharram 1276, NAE.

  21. Madabit Majlis al-Ahkam, Microfilm 434, Sijill 666, Case 690, 16 Rajab 1275, NAE.

  22. Madabit Majlis al-Ahkam, Microfilm 434, Sijill 663, Case 115, pp. 52, 20 Safar 1274, NAE.

  23. Sami, Taqwim al-Nil, vol. 1, part 3, 298.

  24. Archival records of Qina Province reflect the idleness and decentralization of the state during the reign of ‘Abbas Pasha. As opposed to Muhammad ‘Ali’s state, the administrative and central planning activities in Qina during ‘Abbas Pasha’s rule were drastically reduced and matters were left to provincial bureaucrats. See Sadir and Warid Mudiriyyat Qina and Isna, Sijills, years 1265, 1269, and 1270, NAE. Ehud Toledano attempted to present a positive vision on that viceroy in State and Society in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Egypt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). About land seizures, see, for example, Sami, Taqwim al-Nil, vol. 1, part 3, 19, 33; and Sadir Mudiriyyat Qina and Isna, part 2, Jumada al-Awwal 1270, NAE.

  25. About the development of the code and the role of internal forces or landed elite in the promulgation of the 1858 code, see Denis Jorgens, “A Comparative Examination of the Provisions of the Ottoman Land Code and Khedive Sa‘id’s Law of 1858,” in Roger Owen (ed.), New Perspectives on Property and Land in the Middle East (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), 93–119; and Kenneth Cuno, The Pasha’s Peasants: Land, Society, and Economy in Lower Egypt, 1740–1858 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), chapter 10. Both Cuno and Jorgens emphasize that Sa‘id’s code in fact presented a continuity of old Ottoman codes rather than a modern rupture.

  26. See Sadir Mudiriyyat Qina and Isna, 1269–1270; pp. 130–31, 22 Sha‘ban 1270, all in NAE. Village shaykhs also rented medium-sized ab‘adiyyas while peasants rented small ab‘adiyyas of a few acres. Peasants bid to buy small ab‘adiyyas of less than five acres, or a group of them shared small farms. For examples, see Farshut and Naj‘ Hammadi Court, Sijills Ishhadat 1 and 2, 1273, NAE.

  27. Filib Jallad, Qamus al-’Idara wa-l-Qada’ (Al-Iskandariyya: al-Matba‘a al-Bukhariyya, 1891–), 1:182–90; Zayn al-‘Abidin Shams al-Din Najm, Mu‘jam al-Alfaz wa-l-Mustalahat al-Tarikhiyya (Cairo: Dar al-Fikr al-‘Arabi, 2006), 30.

  28. Madabit Majlis al-Ahkam, Microfilm 434, Case 842, pp. 77, 18 Shawwal 1275, NAE.

  29. Sadir Mudiriyyat, Qina, p. 237, 21 Safar 1272; 2 and 9 Safar 1275; p. 245, 23 Safar 1272; p. 257, 28 Safar 1272; p. 1, 1 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1275; p. 257, 28 Safar 1272, all in NAE.

  30. Sadir Mudiriyyat, Qina, Part 10, pp. 4–5, 25 Safar 1279; p. 75, Rabi‘ al-Thani 1275; p. 34, 27 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1279; p. 83, 15 Rabi‘ al-Akhir 1275; Part 2, Safar 1275; Part 7, pp. 72–73, 76, 6 Dhu al-Hijja 1278; and Part 7, 19 Dhu al-Hijja 1278, all in NAE.

  31. ’Awamir Karima, No. 1898, 23 Jumada al-Akhir 1278; No. 1905, 24 Rabi‘ al-Thani 1279, both in NAE.

  32. Sadir Mudiriyyat Qina, Part 1, p. 98, 21 Safar 1275; Part 2, p. 72, 25 Safar 1275; Part 13, 17 Ramadan 1275, all in NAE.

  33. For example, see Sadir ‘Ardhalat Taftish ‘Umum Qibli, p. 32, 3 Safar 1273; and Farshut and Naj‘ Hammadi Courts, Sijill Ishhadat 43, 1277–78, both in NAE.

  34. Sadir ‘Ardhalat Taftish ‘Umum Qibli, p. 5, 15 Muharram 1273, NAE.

  35. See, for example, the Hanafi state mufti Muhammad Al-‘Abbasi al-Mahdi’s Al-Fatawa al-Mahdiyya fil-Waqa’i‘ al-Misriyya, 7 vols. (Cairo: al-Matba‘a al-Azhariyya, 1301/1883); and the Maliki scholar Hasan al-‘Adawi al-Hamzawi’s Tabsirat al-Qudah wa-l-Ikhwan fi Wad‘ al-Yadd (Cairo: al-Matba‘a al-Amiriyya, 1276/1859).

  36. ’Awamir Karima, No. 1891, 18 Jumada al-Thani 1275; Sadir Mudiriyyat Qina, Part 1, p. 67, 23 Rabi‘ al-Akhir 1279, both in NAE.

  37. For a case of corruption of shari‘a judges in land matters, see Madabit Majlis al-Ahkam, Sadir al-Aqalim al-Qibliyya, Microfilm 367, 1276, NAE.

  38. See Mudiriyyat Qina Shari‘a Court, Sijill Tarikat 10, years 1277–78, NAE.

  39. See Sadir Mudiriyyat Qina, Part 1, 1279, NAE.

  40. Farshut and Naj‘ Hammadi Courts, Sijill 45, Case 1, p. 1, 28 Safar 1277; Case 4, p. 1, 28 Safar 1277; Case 5, p. 1, 29 Safar 1277; Case 9, p. 2, 29 Safar 1277; Case 21, p. 3, 2 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1277; Sadir Mudiriyyat Qina, part 2, p. 73, 26 Safar 1275, all in NAE.

  41. See, for example, Landes, Wealth and Poverty of Nations.

  42. On modernity and trust of European experts, see Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1990), chapter 3. Giddens discuses how “traditional” societies’ trust of modernity as an abstract system comes with blind trust of European professional expertise. Timothy Mitchell’s Rule of Experts uses these theoretical insights to illustrate how trustworthy Western experts and their technology most of the time only brought about human and environmental catastrophes. On imperialism and international labor migration, especially in the field of mining, see J.R. McNeill and William McNeill, The Human Web (New York: W.W. Norton, 2003), 262–63. On British imperialism and coal, see J.R. McNeill et al. (ed.), Encyclopedia of World Environmental History (New York: Routledge, 2004), 1:169–70.

  43. Ma‘iyya Saniyya, Turkish
, No. 3, 4 Dhu al-Qi‘da 1234; 18 Dhu al-Hijja 1241; No. 67, 28 Rajab 1251; Diwan Khidiwi, Turkish, No. 729, 28 Dhu Qi‘da 1241; No. 779, 5 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1248; Ma‘iyya Saniyya, Arabic, No. 63, 28 Sha‘ban 1267, all in NAE.

  44. Sa‘id generally invited extensive European expertise and embarked on many large European-Egyptian ventures that involved state funds and European experts. The Suez Canal was one of those ventures initiated by French experts that ended up with heavy indebtedness on the part of Sa‘id and his successors. See Owen, Middle East in the World Economy.

  45. Sadir Mudiriyyat, Qina and Isna, Part 1, pp. 8 and 26, 3 Safar 1275; p. 14, 7 Safar 1275; ’Awamir Karima, Sijill 1889, 10 Dhu al-Qi‘da 1274; 24 Shawwal 1274, all in NAE.

  46. Sadir Mudiriyyat, Qina and Isna, Part 1, p. 86, 27 Safar 1275, NAE.

  47. Sadir Mudiriyyat, Qina and Isna, Part 1, p. 26, 3 Safar 1275, NAE.

  48. Sadir Mudiriyyat, Qina and Isna, Part 1, pp. 1, 10, 13, 38, and 42, 1275, NAE.

  49. Sadir Mudiriyyat, Qina and Isna, Part 1, pp. 10 and 14, Safar 1275; p. 21, 20 Safar 1275; p. 42, 21 Safar 1275; Part 4, p. 6, 27 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1275, all in NAE.

  50. Sadir Mudiriyyat, Qina and Isna, Part 4, p. 6, 17 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1275, NAE.

  51. Sadir Mudiriyyat, Qina and Isna, Part 2, p. 14, 7 Safar 1275, NAE.

  52. Sadir Mudiriyyat, Qina and Isna, Part 2, p. 21, 19 Safar 1275; p. 42, 23 Safar 1275, both in NAE.

  53. ’Awamir Karima, No. 1891, 8 Sha‘ban 1275, NAE.

  54. See Ma‘iyya Saniyya, Turkish (Arabic summaries), Sijill 45, 7 and 19 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1286; Sijill 3, 7 Dhu al-Qi‘da 1270; Sadir al-Ma‘iyya, Arabic, Sijill135, Part 8, 24 Rajab 1270; Majlis al-Ahkam, Sijills 1880–81, 3 Sha‘ban 1271; 16 Jumada al-Awwal 1271; Sadir Mudiriyyat Qina, p. 29, 4 Rabi‘ al- Awwal 1274; Madabit Majlis al-Ahkam, Microfilm 434, Case 842, p. 77, 18 Shawwal 1275; Sadir Mudiriyyat Qina, Part 2, p. 33, 2 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1275; Sadir Mudiriyyat Qina, p. 290, 11 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1272; Sadir Mudiriyyat Qina, pp. 215and 241, 22–23 Safar 1272, all in NAE.

  55. Issawi, Economic History of the Middle East, 30–31; ‘Ali Mubarak, Nukhbat al-Fikr fi Tadbir Nil Misr (Cairo: Matba‘at Wadi al-Nil, 1297/1879), 166–69.