The Oedipus Cycle: Oedipus Rex/Oedipus at Colonus/Antigone

by Sophocles

  1190 the bastard of a captive girl Teukros’s mother was Hesione, the daughter of King Laomedon of Troy. Telamon ‘won’ her during the first Trojan war (1473–80).

  1205–1206 With the war belt / Aias gave him, Hektor was gripped Reference to the customary reciprocity of gifts, including between enemies. In this version of the story, which differs from that in Homer, Hektor was tied to his chariot by Achilles (using the war belt Aias had given Hektor) and dragged to death. Now Aias has met his own death on the sword given him by Hektor.

  1259–1262 But in a city of no respect, just / insolence and willfulness . . . Fear is in order. Menelaos’s prescript for effective governance, and his attitude toward the demôs, is that of an oligarch.

  1270–1272 You’ve set down right-minded precepts . . . outraging the dead. Menelaos has said the right thing, but in leaving Aias’s corpse unburied he violates his own precepts.

  1292–1293 because of an oath . . . shell of a man. See Philoktetes, 81–82.

  1300 The archer, far from blood dust, thinks he’s something Archery was considered less honorable than front line fighting with a sword or spear—though this attitude had less to do with military effectiveness than with ‘class’ distinctions. Frequently archers were archers (or slingers) because they couldn’t afford hoplite armor. They were social inferiors (Hanson, 149). “The Scythian archers who formed the police force were slaves” (Garvie, 227). Eventually archers and cavalry became more decisive than hoplites, who with their breastplates, shields, and tight formations were too ponderous and inflexible to cope with ambushes or shifts in the direction of battle.

  1301 I’m very good at what I do Discussed in the General Introduction, p. xx.

  1350ff. Press your hand on him, clutching locks of hair As suppliants under the protection of Zeus, the boy and his mother will be safe. The dead Aias, “a few moments ago . . . so helpless, is now, even before he is buried, in a position to protect his dependents” even as they protect him (Garvie, 231). It is most telling that Eurysakes, who has been named after his father’s shield, effectively becomes his father’s shield, but in a way that Aias himself could not have envisioned. They form a telling tableau of survival based on interdependence—Eurysakes, Tekmessa, Teukros, and the remains of Aias, in concert with Zeus—as distinguished from the old, now obsolete model whereby the survival of all depended on one towering, heroic individual.

  1372–1373 who taught Greeks / to combine forces Not an imprecation against war in general, but against what Jebb calls “public war” (179), implicitly contrasting this with tribal or polis wars, essentially defensive wars fought largely on home or neighboring grounds. The Trojan War, however, involves an alliance among different Greek entities to fight an expeditionary war under a semiautonomous military command that is neither tribe- nor polis-based. This alliance, whereby the Greeks have been taught “how to league in war” (Lloyd-Jones, 143), more nearly resembles the organization of modern international warfare. The Greek “league” as presented in the Iliad is relatively primitive and ad hoc, based largely on opportunism, oaths, and standing allegiances to lords. Actual fifth-century alliances were nearer our own, but they were not, as in our own time, bureaucratized and ‘legalized.’ There is no qualitative comparison with present-day NATO—which, with its power to call upon the military forces of numerous, far-flung countries, is the global apotheosis of a composite expeditionary force. Nonetheless a rough comparison does throw light on the specificity of the Greek warriors’ concerns.

  1418 a clear majority Given the assumption that the vote was rigged, this may be a reminder that even a hands-on electoral republic (by implication Athens itself) is susceptible to bribery and other manipulation. A dêmokratia is no guarantee that power will reside in the hands of the dêmos (the common people).

  1424 but those with brains i.e., Odysseus.

  1463–1472 Where are you looking? at what . . . in the silence of fishes Pelops came from Phrygia, which is part of Troy. It therefore follows that Agamemnon, who is related to the enemy Trojans, is himself a barbarian. Agamemnon’s father, Atreus, on discovering his wife had committed adultery with his brother, Thyestes, invited Thyestes to a banquet at which he fed Thyestes his own sons. The father of Agamemnon’s mother (Aerope, from Crete) caught her with a slave lover. He sent her to King Nauplius to be drowned. She was spared, however, and (as we are now reminded) lived to be Agamemnon’s mother.

  1488 Or was it your brother’s wife? Helen. Teukros either pretends he doesn’t know or care which wife has been the cause of this war, or he insinuates that Agamemnon as well as Menelaos has bedded Helen. Either way, the insult may not be casual. If Helen is truly the cause of this war, she’s not a valid nor a sufficient one.

  WOMEN OF TRAKHIS

  1 saying Herodotus (20–21) attributes the saying to Solon.

  9 Pleuron A town in Aetolia over which Oeneus, Deianeira’s father, was a powerful lord.

  12 a river lusted for me The word potamos connotes both river and river god.

  13 Achelous A river, still the mightiest in Greece and now called the Aspropotamo (White River), that has its source in the Pindus Mountains of northern Greece and flows to the Ionian Sea.

  15 each time in a different shape This creature who can change its shape was represented in Greek art, notably on red-figured vases. Each of the three shapes has a man’s face and beard attached to an animal body, in the same way a centaur does.

  23 son of Alkmene and Zeus See introduction to play (p. 99) for Herakles’ lineage and history.

  30 Zeus the battle god From agonios “decider of the contest”—“an epithet applied to any of the gods who presided over [athletic] games” (Easterling 1982, 76). Boxing matches were held in honor of the river god in this part of Greece. Sophocles may be alluding to this here.

  39 sowing his seed, reaping the harvest “Sowing” (speiron) is appropriate to describe the reproductive activity of both farmer and father.

  41 this one man Deianeira refuses to use his name, because of the role this man plays in her continuing misery. He is Eurystheus, the king of Argos, who was charged with assigning Herakles his canonical twelve labors.

  44 Iphitus Herakles killed Iphitus, the son of Eurytus, by sneaking up behind him and hurling him off a cliff, as punishment for Eurytus, who had banished the drunken Herakles from his house.

  61 Hyllos The eldest of Herakles and Deianeira’s four sons.

  76 Lydian woman Queen Omphale. As punishment for deceitfully killing Iphitus, Zeus assigned Herakles to work for her for one year, with payment going to Eurytus.

  82 Eurytus Ruler of Euboea.

  85 prophecies Deianeira’s memory has been stirred by the word “Euboea,” since that is the place referred to (in the prophecies she’s about to recall) as the site of Herakles’ final combat.

  103 Chorus A group of local women arrive singing an “entry song,” a fixture in Greek plays that serves many purposes. Here it allows the women to state their concern for the welfare of both Herakles and Deianeira and to speculate on their difficulties.

  114 Alkmene’s child Herakles was born in Thebes but was not a descendant of Kadmos, since he was fathered by Zeus with Amphytrion’s wife, Alkmene.

  158 Bear The constellation we call Ursa Major. The Greeks animated the skies with mythological figures, human and animal, each with its own story. Because of their seasonal migrations (“starpaths”) across the sky, constellations became a reliable source of information about seasonal change, including sowing and harvest times. The more fixed stars provided guidance for both sailors and foot travelers.

  175–177 thrive . . . glory A young girl’s life is here implicitly compared to the life of a delicate plant whose seclusion protects it from harsh weather.

  186 message carved on wood This tablet was first mentioned at 51 and contains prophecies, written out by Herakles, that will be elaborated later in the play.

  193 widow’s share Deianeira’s dowry, which would return to her at Herakles’
death, together with any other property he has given to her during their marriage. His specific bequests to her and their children were not inscribed on the tablet, but relayed orally to Deianeira when he explained the prophecies on it.

  196–197 fifteen / months The exact figure for Herakles’ current absence is significant because it ominously matches precisely the frightening prediction that he will either die or live on in peace after this date. The play’s action takes place at this critical juncture, and both prophecies do come true.

  203–205 ancient oak . . . sibyls Prophecies rendered by the oracle of Dodona originated in the rustling leaves of an oak tree, and were interpreted into Greek words by the shrine’s two priestesses. The word I translate as “sibyls” is actually peleiadon, meaning “doves.” Some scholars believe Sophocles used the word peleiadon simply as an affectionate alternative nickname for the priestesses; other scholars contend that he meant “doves” literally. If the latter is true, the doves would then need to somehow pass on the prophecy to the sibyls. To further complicate matters, very early texts imply that the trees’ rustlings could be heard as actual human speech. Since a person would be needed to interpret what the leaves and/or the birds were trying to communicate, I’ve cut this particular Gordian tangle by calling the final interpreters “sibyls.”

  221 laurel flowers A crown of laurel leaves announced that a person was bringing good news.

  243 Malia The plain between the rocky promontory, under the mountains on which the town of Trakhis sits, and the Gulf of Malia. The Malians on the plain below have swarmed around Likhas, who is bringing news of Herakles.

  255ff. Let the house The Trakhinian women invite the men and women in the house and from the neighborhood to join them in a song to celebrate Herakles’ imminent return. In the original production, singing extras might have arrived onstage to join the Chorus.

  262 Apollo A god who has multiple functions; here he is, appropriately enough, addressed as the “protector of roads.”

  268–271 Artemis . . . quail Artemis is given the epithet here of Ortigyian, which refers to her association with quails and islands named for quails. Since quails were believed to be excellent mothers, the epithet may have to do with Artemis as the goddess of childbirth. There is no certain explanatory translation. Since all the actions proposed for gods in this ode are athletic, happen outdoors, and are exuberant, the chorus would think it natural to address her as Ortigyian while she hunts deer.

  277 I’m soaring! The sudden shift from first person plural to first person singular signals an inrush of Bakkhic spirit as the choristers praise and call upon the god of ecstasy. In ancient productions, these words could be sung in unison—as one—which would reflect a principle of Dionysiac religion: that a group filled with the spirit of Bakkhos feels itself united within the body of the god.

  280–286 Ivy . . . Bakkhos! As Jebb (1882) so lucidly explains: The “Trachinian maidens imagine themselves to be bacchanals; the music of the [flute] suggests the spell of the [ivy]: and they speak as if the ivy on their brows was sending its mystic power through their whole frames, stirring them to the dance.”

  305 Euboea Large island off the coast of Trakhis.

  310 the vow Herakles had either made a prior vow before attacking Eurytus’ city, or was acting on the advice of an oracle that told him it was prudent to make a sacrifice to Zeus and set up a shrine to him after plundering it.

  326 Omphale According to a complex arrangement commanded by Zeus, Omphale paid Eurytus for Herakles’ services.

  339 arrows Theocritos (24, 106ff.) wrote that Eurytus taught Herakles to use a bow. If so, it would make sense that as a novice archer, Herakles had trouble besting Eurytus’ well-schooled archer sons. The arrows Herakles was using were presumed to be unerring because Apollo provided them. Perhaps the arrows could not maintain their accuracy if the shooter was intoxicated, as Herakles evidently was while Eurytus’ guest.

  360 Gods don’t appreciate insolence The gods’ lack of appreciation for insolence (or hubris) applies to both Herakles and Eurytus.

  384 Zeus . . . battles The most appropriate god to invoke here, since he was responsible for the plight of slaves.

  DEIANEIRA approaches Iole. Iole is the daughter of Eurytus and the sister of Iphitus.

  433 it was Love Eros the love god dominated Herakles at this moment, not, for instance, Ares the war god.

  582–585 Hades . . . Zeus . . . Kronos . . . Poseidon Kronos is the father of Hades (the ruler of the underworld), Zeus (god of the sky and the ruler of Olympus), and Poseidon (god of the sea).

  653 Nessus A famous centaur well known to be an exceptionally violent member of his species.

  656 Evenus A fierce swift mountain river that has its source on Oita’s western slope, from which it flows into the Gulf of Korinth.

  669 Hydra of Lerna A snake with many heads, all of which regenerated as soon as Herakles cut them off. Lerna was the swamp in which the Hydra lived.

  678 rash acts Here a twinge of conscience is fused with self-justification, enabling Sophocles to suggest the irony of Deianeira’s action. She boasts that unlike some women, who maliciously harm a rival or a spouse, all she does is find a benign way to heighten Herakles’ desire for her. Far from benign, her way will prove more deadly than malice.

  717 Hermes’ craft The messenger’s craft: to deliver messages promptly, securely, and without garbling them.

  730 All of you living The beat of the song and the instruments should be appropriately joyful.

  756 twelve months Actually, according to Deianiera, they’ve been waiting fifteen months. An unaccountable mistake.

  773 power which burns The text seems very likely corrupt here. I rely on Haupt’s conjecture, pharos replacing the text’s theros, which would correct the literal meaning of the phrase at issue to mean “on the pretext of the robe.” Jebb interprets this phrase to mean that the robe was the pretext for using the love-charm (pharmakon) (Jebb 1882, 103). Whatever word Sophocles actually used here, the Chorus is focused on the artificial (chemical) power to persuade now inherent in the robe. The somewhat strained syntax and vocabulary of 660–662 hints that Sophocles sought to fuse metaphorically the lethal and burning properties of Nessus’ poison with the warm intimate hopes of Deianeira.

  775 Persuasion The Chorus invokes the goddess who gets people to do what they’re reluctant to do.

  803 the moment it’s smeared on Deianeira omits mention of Herakles as the ultimate target for the potion; similarly, at 38, she neglects to name Eurytus.

  874 flawless bulls To honor a god properly, at least twelve of the animals must be in prime condition.

  876 hundred animals A hecatomb was a standard number of bulls used to complete a festival. Hyllos is guessing here, not counting.

  880 resin-soaked pine logs Heat and sweat were required to activate the poison, hence both Nessus and Deianeira’s specific instructions; Herakles was accustomed to following orders precisely.

  920 Vengeance and the Furies Hyllos invokes the god of justice and the Furies because he believes his mother has committed an act of kin murder, the sentence for which is death. Significantly, Hyllos does not immediately carry out the punishment, but waits for her response, which comes not in words but in walking away. When she leaves the stage, the curse he actually delivers is simply that she suffer.

  DEIANEIRA . . . walks toward the house without a word It was a convention of Athenian drama that a character intending to commit suicide would not respond to the speech or circumstances that provoked the decision.

  935ff. O sisters The function of this chorus is to tie up loose ends and make deductions. The singers trace the guilt of Herakles’ death all the way back to the Hydra and the centaur he killed; Deianeira is absolved in their minds; they sympathize in retrospect with her resort to the deadly charm, which they had approved when she asked them if they thought it was a good idea. They also correctly interpret the prophecy that had stumped Herakles. Their final casting of blame is upon th
e Cyprian, or Aphrodite, who, far from the hideous scene to come, caused it.

  938 twelfth year Herakles’ death occurs during the twelfth year following the oracle of Dodona’s prophecy.

  1085 nightingale’s voice The bird who gives voice to irremediable harm and grief.

  1155 Athena Pallas Athena, who during Herakles’ lifetime was his mentor and protector.

  1176–1177 this net / of the Furies A net was the Greeks’ all-purpose image for a situation from which there is no escape. Herakles imagines that Hades and the Furies have made this net because (as Easterling 1982, 206, suggests) it puts him in the same class with Aias, who was killed with Hector’s sword, forged by the same infernal prayer to be irresistible.

  1187 army of giants Herakles fought against the giants on the side of the gods. His recounting of his many battles in which he was on the side of civilization and its hierarchies serves to declare his grievances against those who suddenly have abandoned him and to reassure himself of his own value.

  1320–1321 Now hear . . . prophecy / makes sense The reader and audience will have grasped the sense in which both prophecies summarized earlier in the play have proven true. Herakles will be freed into peacefulness by his own death.

  1375 If burning me appalls you, do the rest For a Greek to kill his own father, even as an act commanded by the father, would pollute the son irreparably. Thus Herakles agrees not to force Hyllos to build the fire or light it. Beyond the scope of the play, as we learn in Philoktetes, it was Philoktetes who set Herakles’ pyre burning.

  1392 Marry her. Agree to it As J. C. Kamerbeek puts it: “It is in keeping with this unhuman or superhuman character [Herakles] . . . for whom nothing is of any interest except his own glorious deeds, his own excessive desires and his divine descent that he requires his son to comply with this shocking wish” (247).