Chile Peppers
Page 4
Although the chiltepín plant’s average height is about four feet, there are reports of individual bushes growing 10 feet tall, living 25 to 30 years, and having stems as big around as a man’s wrist. Chiltepíns are resistant to frost but lose their leaves in cold winter weather. New growth will sprout from the base of the plant if it is frozen back.
There is quite a bit of legend and lore associated with the fiery little pods. In earlier times, the Papago Indians of Arizona traditionally made annual pilgrimages into the Sierra Madre range of Mexico to gather chiltepíns. Dr. Gary Nabhan, formerly of Native Seeds/SEARCH in Tucson, discovered that the Tarahumara Indians of Chihuahua value the chiltepíns so much that they build stone walls around the bushes to protect them from goats. Besides using them to spice up food, Indians use chiltepíns for antilactation, the technique where nursing mothers put chiltepín powder on their nipples to wean babies. Chiltepíns are also an aid in childbirth because, when powdered and inhaled, they cause sneezing. And, of course, the hot chiles induce gustatory sweating, which cools off the body during hot weather.
In 1794, Padre Ignaz Pfefferkorn, a German Jesuit living in Sonora, described the wild chile pepper: “A kind of wild pepper which the inhabitants call chiltipin is found on many hills. It is placed unpulverized on the table in a salt cellar and each fancier takes as much of it as he believes he can eat. He pulverizes it with his fingers and mixes it with his food. The chiltipin is the best spice for soup, boiled peas, lentils, beans and the like.”
Padre Pfefferkorn realized that chiltepíns are one of the few crops in the world that are harvested in the wild rather than cultivated. (Others are piñon nuts, Brazil nuts, and some wild rice.) This fact has led to concern for the preservation of the chiltepín bushes because the harvesters often pull up entire plants or break off branches. Dr. Nabhan believes that the chiltepín population is diminishing because of overharvesting and overgrazing. In Arizona, a chiltepín reserve has been established near Tumacacori at Rock Corral Canyon in the Coronado National Forest. Native Seeds/SEARCH has been granted a special-use permit from the National Forest Service to initiate permanent marking and mapping of plants, ecological studies, and a management-plan proposal.
YO SOY UN CHILTIPÍNERO
My amigo Antonio Heras swears that the motto of the Sonoran bus lines is “Better Dead Than Late,” and I believe him. The smoke-belching buses were flying by us on curves marked by shrines commemorating the unfortunate drivers whose journeys through life had abruptly ended on this mountain road. We waved the buses on and cruised along at a safer speed to enjoy the spectacular vistas on the way to the valley of the chiltepíneros.
It was November 1990, the time of the Sonoran chiltepín harvest, yet the temperature was in the upper eighties. My wife, Mary Jane, and I had accepted the invitation of Antonio Heras to visit the home of his mother, Josefina, the “Chile Queen,” who lives in the town of Cumpas. From there, we journeyed through the spectacular scenery of the foothills of the Sierra Madre range—chiltepín country. Our destination was the Rio Sonora Valley and the villages of La Aurora and Mazocahui. As we drove along, Antonio and I reminisced about our fascination with the wild chile pepper. During the early days of the Chile Pepper magazine, both of us had attended a symposium on wild chiles that was held in October 1988 at the Desert Botanical Garden in Phoenix. The leader of the conference was the ecologist Dr. Gary Nabhan, author of Gathering the Desert, director of Native Seeds/SEARCH, and an expert on chiltepíns. Other chile experts attending included Dr. W. Hardy Eshbaugh, a botanist from Miami University of Ohio; Dr. Jean Andrews, author of Peppers: The Domesticated Capsicums; and Cindy Baker of the Chicago Botanical Garden. The symposium on wild chiles was fascinating, and we even got to taste some chiltepín ice cream. But it was even more interesting to see the chiltepíneros in action two years later.
IN THE VILLAGE OF THE DAWN
The only way to drive to the Village of the Dawn (La Aurora) is to ford the Rio Sonora, which was no problem for Antonio’s Jeep. The first thing we noticed about the village was that nearly every house had thousands of brilliant red chiltepíns drying on white linen cloths in their front yards. We stopped at the modest house of veteran chiltepínero Pedro Osuna and were immediately greeted warmly and offered liquid refreshment. As Pedro measured out the chiltepíns he had collected for Antonio and Josefina, we asked him about the methods of the chiltepíneros.
Chiltepíns drying in the sun on muslin cloths in La Aurora. Photograph by Dave DeWitt.
He said that the Durans advanced him money so he could hire pickers and pay for expenses such as gasoline. Then he would drive the pickers to ranches where the bushes were numerous. He dropped the pickers off alongside the road, and they wandered through the rough cattle country handpicking the tiny pods. In a single day, a good picker could collect only six quarts of chiltepíns. At sunset, the pickers returned to the road, where Pedro met them. The ranchers who owned the land would later be compensated with a liter or so of pods.
Usually, the pods would be dried in the sun for about 10 days. But because that technique is lengthy and often results in the pods collecting dust, Antonio had built a solar dryer in back of Pedro’s house. Air heated by a solar collector rose up a chimney through racks, with screens holding the fresh chiltepíns—a much more efficient method. Modern technology, based upon ancient, solar-passive principles, had arrived at the Village of the Dawn.
I asked Pedro how the harvest was going, and he said it was the best in more than a decade because the better-than-average rainfall had caused the bushes to set a great many fruits. Antonio added that during the drought of 1988, chiltepíns were so rare that there was no export crop. According to Pedro, factors other than rainfall also had an influence on the harvest—specifically, birds and insects. Mockingbirds, pyrrhuloxia (Mexican cardinals), and other species readily ate the pods as they turned red, but the real damage to the entire plant was caused by grasshoppers.
The total harvest in Sonora is difficult to estimate, but at least 20 tons of dried pods are collected and sold in an average year. Some chiltepíneros have suggested that in a wet year like 1990, 50 tons might be a better estimate. The total export to the United States is estimated at more than 6 tons a year, and the Durans account for much of that. As I watched Antonio and his mother weigh huge sacks of chiltepíns on the small scale in front of the market, I asked Antonio about prices.
He declined to tell me what he paid the chiltepíneros, but he offered a wealth of information about other pricing information. Between 1968 and 1990, the wholesale price of chiltepíns multiplied nearly tenfold. Between 1987 and 1990, the price nearly tripled, mostly because of the 1988 drought. Currently, chiltepíns are being sold in South Tucson in one-quarter-ounce packages for $2, which equates to a phenomenal $128 per pound. Thus, chiltepíns are the second most expensive spice in the world, after saffron.
Why do people in the United States lust after these tiny pods? Dr. Nabhan suggests that chiltepíns remind immigrants of their northern Mexico homeland and help them reinforce their Sonoran identity. Also, chiltepíns have traditional uses in Sonoran cuisine, as evidenced by the recipes we collected. In addition to spicing up Sonoran foods, they are an antioxidant and thus help preserve carne seca, the dried meat we call jerky. No wonder the Chile Queen and her son work hard to import many hundreds of pounds of pods.
After the sacks of chiltepíns were loaded into the Jeep, we were joined by Arizona Republic reporter Keith Rosenblum, who was writing a story on the chiltepíneros. We went for lunch in the nearby village of Mazocahui, passing signs reading “Se vende chiltepín” (chiltepíns for sale). At the rustic restaurant, which was really the living room of someone’s house, we sat down for a fiery feast. Bowls of chiltepíns were on the table, and the extremely hot salsa casera was served with carne adovada, carne machaca, beans, and the superb extremely thin Sonoran flour tortillas.
Back in the town of Cumpas, loud salsa music enlivened the streets as if a fiesta were in pro
gress. Josefina and her assistant Evalia prepared a wonderful chiltepínspiced meal. We drank some bacanora, the magical Mexican moonshine, and dined on an elegant—and highly spiced—menu of Sonoran specialties. I felt inspired. After submerging myself in the chiltepín culture of Sonora, I was very comfortable in saying, “Yo soy un chiltepínero.” I am a chiltepínero.
recipes
Based on the archaeological evidence, I have devised some recipes that reflect the main ingredients used in the cooking of the Mayas (from Cerén in particular), the Incas, and the Aztecs—adapted, of course, for modern kitchens. One of my basic theories about the history of cooking is that we should never underestimate our predecessors’ culinary sophistication, so I cannot presume that as far back as 14 centuries ago the Mayas were preparing boring food. Especially since we know that they had chiles.
Spicy calabacitas. Prepared by Aaron Hill. Photograph by Douglas K. Hill.
SPICY CALABACITAS
yield
4 to 6 servings
heat scale
medium
This recipe combines three Native American crops: squash, corn, and chiles. Although we don’t know for sure, my theory is that the Cerén villagers would have known how to use green chiles. I have taken the liberty of substituting New Mexican chiles for the small Cerénean chiles, making a milder dish. The villagers, of course, would not have used butter, milk, or cheese but rather fat and water flavored with palm fruits.
½
cup chopped green New Mexican chiles, roasted, peeled, stems removed
3
zucchini squash, cubed
½
cup chopped onion
4
tablespoons butter or margarine
2
cups whole kernel corn
1
cup milk
½
cup grated Monterey Jack cheese
In a pan, sauté the squash and onion in the butter until the squash is tender.
Add the chiles, corn, and milk. Simmer the mixture for 15 to 20 minutes to blend the flavors. Add the cheese and heat until the cheese is melted.
XOCOLATL: ROYAL CHOCOLATE WITH CHILE
yield
1 serving
heat scale
medium
Although this drink was served to royalty in the large Mayan cities, the discovery of chile in conjunction with cacao in Cerén indicates that even commoners knew how to make this concoction.
1 ½
cups water
¼
cup unsweetened cocoa powder (not instant hot-chocolate mix)
1
tablespoon honey
¼
teaspoon hot-chile powder, such as chiltepín
1
vanilla bean pod
In a pan, heat the water to boiling. Add the remaining ingredients and stir well.
Serve immediately with the vanilla bean for garnish in the drink.
RED SNAPPER FILLETS
yield
4 servings
heat scale
varies, but usually hot
Another dish that evolved from the Inca people, ceviche has fish or other seafood soaked in the juice of limes and lemons. The citric acid in the juice causes the proteins in the seafood to become denatured, or “cured,” appearing to be cooked. Before the Spanish introduced limes and lemons to the New World, the juice of the rather sour Peruvian groundcherry (Physalis peruviana), also known as the cape gooseberry, was probably used. More than any other dish, ceviche is the plato nacionál (national dish) of Peru. Though the recipe given here makes use of one fish only, any number of seafood items including other fishes, scallops, shrimp, octopus, and crab may be used singly or in combination in preparing a ceviche. Peruvians like their ceviche fiery hot, so in the interest of authenticity, don’t skimp on the diced chiles.
1
pound red snapper fillet
Juice of 8 limes
Juice of 2 lemons
Various Peruvian chile peppers; 2 minced habaneros make a good substitute
½
cup chopped fresh cilantro
1
large red onion, cut in julienned strips and then soaked in cold salted water
1
tablespoon salt
1
teaspoon fresh ground black pepper
Cut the snapper fillets into pieces about 1 inch long and ½ inch wide. Do not use pieces any larger than that, as they will not be properly cured by the citrus juices.
In a large stainless-steel bowl, marinate the fish in the lime and lemon juices. Cover and let sit for 1 hour.
Chop the chiles, removing any seeds, and soak the chiles in a bowl of cold water. Julienne the red onion and soak in another bowl of cold water.
Add the chiles and onion to the fish, mix well, and refrigerate for an hour before serving.
THE EARLIEST MOLE SAUCE
yield
2 ½ cups
heat scale
medium
Why wouldn’t the cooks of Cerén have developed sauces to serve over meats and vegetables? After all, there is evidence that curry mixtures were in existence thousands of years ago in what is now India, and we have to assume that Native Americans experimented with all available ingredients. Perhaps this mole sauce was served over stewed duck meat, as ducks were one of the domesticated meat sources of the Cerén villagers.
4
tomatillos, husks removed
1
tomato, toasted in a skillet and peeled
½
teaspoon chile seeds
3
tablespoons pepitas (toasted pumpkin or squash seeds)
1
corn tortilla, torn into pieces
2
tablespoons medium-hot chile powder
1
teaspoon achiote (annatto seeds)
3
tablespoons vegetable oil
2
cups chicken broth
1
ounce Mexican or bittersweet chocolate
In a blender, combine the tomatillos, tomato, chile seeds, pepitas, tortilla, chile powder, and achiote to make a paste.
In a pan, heat the vegetable oil and fry the paste until fragrant, about 4 minutes, stirring constantly.
Add the chicken broth and the chocolate, and stir over medium heat until thickened to desired consistency.
THE GREAT MONTEZUMA
yield
4 servings
heat scale
medium
Richard Sterling developed this recipe, which is his version of how the Spaniards might have transformed Montezuma’s favorite beverage with the addition of alcohol. He commented: “Salud! Drink to the Old World and the New.”
12
ounces hot chocolate made with unsweetened cocoa powder
2
tablespoons honey
½
teaspoon vanilla extract
2
jiggers pepper vodka
2
tablespoons heavy cream
Cayenne powder and cinnamon sticks for garnish
Grated chocolate and dried red chiles for garnish (optional)
Combine the chocolate, honey, vanilla, and vodka in a small pitcher. Pour into two longstemmed glasses or Irish coffee glasses. Float the cream on the tops of the two drinks. Dust with a pinch of cayenne pepper and garnish with cinnamon sticks, or dust with grated chocolate and garnish with dried red chiles. Cut them lengthwise and fix them to the edges of the glasses.
PEPITA-GRILLED VENISON CHOPS
yield
4 servings
heat scale
medium
Here is a tasty grilled dish featuring native New World game, chiles, and tomatoes, plus pepitas—toasted pumpkin or squash seeds. Garlic is not native to the New World but is given here as a substitute for wild onions, which the people of Cerén would have known.
5
tablespoons pepitas
3
1
tablespoon red chile powder
½
cup tomato paste
¼
cup vegetable oil
3
tablespoons lemon juice or vinegar
4
thick-cut venison chops, or substitute thick lamb chops
Puree all the ingredients, except the venison, in a blender. Paint the chops with this mixture and marinate at room temperature for an hour.
Grill the chops over a charcoal and piñon wood fire until done, basting with the remaining marinade.
VENISON STEAK WITH JUNIPER BERRY
AND FIERY RED CHILE SAUCE
yield
6 servings