Bhakti and Embodiment

by Barbara A Holdrege

  Kṛṣṇa, the embodiment of Veda, is thus represented in the Bhāgavata Purāṇa as assuming the form of Brahmā in order to bring forth the Vedic mantras and to manifest the phenomenal world. In the second phase of the process of Vedic transmission, he is represented as assuming the form of the ṛṣis (ṛṣi-rūpa-dhara) to cognize and preserve the Vedic mantras and thereby inaugurate the recitative and sacrificial traditions.146 Finally, in the third phase of the transmission process, he assumes the form of the ṛṣi Vyāsa in Dvāpara Yuga in order to divide the one Veda into four Saṃhitās.147

  The Bhāgavata Purāṇa thus represents Kṛṣṇa as assuming a series of manifest forms in order to bring forth the Vedic mantras, cognize and preserve them as recited texts, and divide them into distinct collections. The entire process is ultimately understood as a process of self-revelation, for the Vedic mantras that he brings forth, cognizes, and divides are simply the differentiated expressions of his own eternal nature as Veda.

  This process of self-revelation culminates in the Bhāgavata Purāṇa, which Kṛṣṇa reveals to his partial manifestation Brahmā at the beginning of each kalpa.148 Brahmā in turn transmits the Bhāgavata to his son Nārada, who in turn imparts it to Vyāsa when he is meditating.149 It is through the agency of Kṛṣṇa Dvaipāyana Vyāsa, Kṛṣṇa’s partial manifestation (kalā) in the form of a ṛṣi, that Kṛṣṇa reveals himself to himself in the form of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa, in which he celebrates the rapturous delights of his own divine līlā.150 Kṛṣṇa is both the ṛṣi Vyāsa and the object of this great ṛṣi’s cognitions. While from the perspective of Kṛṣṇa, the Bhāgavata’s narration of the līlā is self-revelation, from the perspective of the enlightened sage Vyāsa, it is a record of his cognitions of the supreme Bhagavān. Vyāsa’s cognitions of Kṛṣṇa’s līlā are represented as the culminating stage of spiritual attainment, for even though he has realized Brahman he does not feel completely fulfilled until he realizes the supreme reality of Kṛṣṇa and extols the glories of Bhagavān. In this highest state, with his awareness immersed in Kṛṣṇa, he cognizes the hidden dynamics of the Godhead and witnesses the unfoldment of Kṛṣṇa’s divine līlā. Like the Vedic ṛṣis, who cognize the activities of the gods in their celestial realms and give expression to their cognitions in the form of recited hymns, the ṛṣi Vyāsa cognizes the play and display of the supreme Bhagavān and gives expression to his cognitions in the form of recited narratives. Recitation of Kṛṣṇa’s līlā in the Bhāgavata Purāṇa is therefore considered tantamount to recitation of the Vedic mantras.151

  The Bhāgavata declares itself equal to the Veda because Kṛṣṇa, who is Veda incarnate, discloses himself most perfectly and completely in this text. The Bhāgavata thus claims for itself the special status of the Kārṣṇa-Veda, which can be understood in two senses: as the Veda whose semantic content pertains to Kṛṣṇa; and as the Veda that is identical with Kṛṣṇa, in the sense that the text itself is the embodiment of Bhagavān. Kṛṣṇa, who is Veda incarnate, is embodied in the Bhāgavata, which is therefore Kṛṣṇa incarnate and, by extension, Veda incarnate. In the final analysis, then, the Bhāgavata’s declarations that it is brahma-sammita152 are assertions of its identity with that totality which is simultaneously Brahman, Kṛṣṇa, and Veda. The Bhāgavata, as Śabdabrahman and śruti incarnate, is Brahman embodied in sound, Kṛṣṇa embodied in text. This Kārṣṇa-Veda Saṃhitā—this collection of recited narratives about Kṛṣṇa’s līlā—is considered the consummate expression on the manifest level of the eternal sound reverberations that constitute Kṛṣṇa’s form on the unmanifest level. At the onset of Kali Yuga, when Kṛṣṇa departs the earth and returns to his transcendent, unmanifest abode (dhāman), he leaves behind the Bhāgavata Purāṇa as his manifest embodiment on earth in Kali Yuga.

  This Purāṇa known by the name of Bhāgavata is equal to Brahman/Kṛṣṇa/Veda (brahma-sammita).… This [Bhāgavata] is the very essence (sāra) extracted from all the Itihāsas and Vedas.… Now that Kṛṣṇa has departed for his own abode (svadhāman) along with dharma, knowledge, and so on, this Purāṇa has risen like the sun for the sake of those who are bereft of sight in Kali Yuga.153

  The Bhāgavata Purāṇa, both in its oral-aural manifestation as recited narratives and in its written-visual manifestation as a concrete book, is thus revered as a text-incarnation of Kṛṣṇa, which, like his image-incarnations, is to be “placed on a throne of gold” and ritually venerated.154

  Fruits of Reciting and Hearing the Śrīmad Bhāgavata

  The Bhāgavata Purāṇa emphasizes the fruits (phala) of reciting (root paṭh or root gṝ) this śruti pertaining to Kṛṣṇa as well as the fruits of hearing (root śru) the recitation.155 A brahmin who ritually recites (root i + adhi) the Bhāgavata Purāṇa is promised fruits comparable to those attained through reciting the Vedic mantras.156 However, like other Purāṇas, the Bhāgavata also distinguishes itself from the Vedic paradigm by insisting that—in contrast to the Vedic mantras, which may be recited and heard only by male members of the three twice-born varṇas—this Purāṇa-Veda may be recited and heard by people at all levels of the socioreligious hierarchy, including śūdras and women.157 The Bhāgavata, the fruit (phala) of the wish-fulfilling tree of Veda, declares itself to be full of bliss-bestowing ambrosia (amṛta, rasa, or pīyūṣa) in the form of stories of Kṛṣṇa’s līlā (līlā-kathā), which are relished (root tṛp) by all who hear them and captivate the hearts of gods and humans alike. Those who drink (root pā) the ambrosial nectar of the Bhāgavata’s stories are forever satiated and are no longer afflicted by hunger, thirst, and the mundane cravings of material existence.158 Immersion in the Śrīmad Bhāgavata through hearing (śravaṇa), recitation (paṭhana), and meditation (vicāraṇa) is celebrated as the means through which bhaktas can purify (root pū or root śudh) their hearts and minds of all sins (pātakas);159 attain freedom from fear, suffering, and delusion;160 and cross over the ocean of saṃsāra, the cycle of birth and death, to a state of liberation (mukti).161 Engaging the Bhāgavata—the Kārṣṇa-Veda in which Kṛṣṇa himself is embodied in the form of a text—is intended above all to inspire bhakti by manifesting Kṛṣṇa’s presence in the heart, culminating in attainment of the highest goal of human existence: realization of Kṛṣṇa in his transcendent abode (dhāman).162

  As we have seen, the Bhāgavata Purāṇa claims to be a record of the ṛṣi Vyāsa’s direct cognitions of Kṛṣṇa in the form of a collection of narratives in which Bhagavān himself is instantiated. The Bhāgavata declares, moreover, that devotion to Kṛṣṇa and his Kārṣṇa-Veda Saṃhitā is the most efficacious means of realizing the true import of the Vedic Saṃhitās, for Kṛṣṇa himself is the eternal Veda who manifests himself in the differentiated expressions of the Vedic mantras. The Vedic mantras are represented as praising Kṛṣṇa eternally in his transcendent abode beyond the material realm of prakṛti163 and are portrayed more specifically as singing an extended hymn of praise (veda-stuti) in which they glorify the supreme Godhead who is their source, substance, and goal and laud the “ocean of ambrosial nectar consisting of stories (kathāmṛtābdhi)” about him.164 The entire canon of śruti and smṛti texts—the Vedas together with the Vedāṅgas, Upavedas, Itihāsas, and Purāṇas—is represented as bowing down at the feet of Bhagavān.165 The Bhāgavata Purāṇa, as the Kārṣṇa-Veda that is an embodiment of Bhagavān, thus claims for itself the status of the quintessential scripture that is the culmination and fulfillment of the entire canon of śāstras.

  Bhāgavata Purāṇa as the Embodiment of Bhagavān

  The transcendent authority of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa as the embodiment of Bhagavān is celebrated not only in the Bhāgavata Purāṇa itself but also in the Bhāgavata Māhātmya of the Padma Purāṇa, a eulogistic text that extols the glories of this quintessential śāstra and the fruits (phala) derived from engaging it.166 The Bhāgavata Māhātmya is an independent unit consis
ting of six chapters that forms part of the Uttara Khaṇḍa in the Southern recension of the Padma Purāṇa adopted by all printed editions.167 The Bhāgavata Māhātmya is one of the latest sections interpolated into this composite Purāṇa, and I would argue that it was composed in the late sixteenth century or early seventeenth century in the area of Vraja in North India following the landmark developments inspired by the leaders of the Gauḍīya Sampradāya and the Puṣṭi Mārga that led to the flourishing of Kṛṣṇa bhakti traditions in Vraja. Moreover, I would argue that the Bhāgavata Māhātmya derives more specifically from a Gauḍīya milieu, since the interests advanced by the text coincide closely with those advanced by the early Gauḍīya authorities, as I will discuss in the following analysis.168

  Rejuvenating Bhakti and Her Sons

  The Bhāgavata Māhātmya’s provenance is suggested by the narrative that frames the text, which opens in Vraja, or Vṛndāvana, “on the bank of the Yamunā River where the līlā of Hari occurred,”169 and relates the encounter of the celestial ṛṣi Nārada with a hypostatized Bhakti in the form of a young woman, who is accompanied by her two decrepit sons, Jñāna (knowledge) and Vairāgya (renunciation). Bhakti recounts to Nārada an encapsulated version of her own history—from her birth in South India through her coming of age in Karnataka, travels in Maharashtra, and decline into old age in Gujarat, culminating in her recent rejuvenation in Vṛndāvana. The following verses of the Bhāgavata Māhātmya present the classical formulation that is frequently invoked by Vaiṣṇava residents of Vraja170 and by Indian and Western scholars in debates about the history of bhakti traditions in India.171

  I [Bhakti] was born in Draviḍa, attained maturity in Karnataka, went here and there in Maharashtra, and became withered by old age in Gujarat. There, on account of the dreadful Kali Yuga, my body was rent asunder by heretics. In a weakened state for a long time, I languished along with my two sons. However, on reaching Vṛndāvana, I have become rejuvenated and beautiful once again. I have now rightfully reclaimed my youth and exquisite form.172

  Although her own youth and beauty have been restored, Bhakti laments to Nārada that she is perplexed and distressed because her two sons continue to be afflicted by old age and exhaustion. Nārada explains to her that it is through contact with Vṛndāvana that she has become rejuvenated, for in this most auspicious land Bhakti always dances. However, Bhakti alone flourishes in Kali Yuga, while alternative paths, such as the paths of knowledge and renunciation embodied by her two sons, Jñāna and Vairāgya, are neglected and ineffectual in this woe-filled age in which human beings are plagued by diminished intelligence, lack of discipline, and moral turpitude.

  Due to contact with Vṛndāvana you have become young and fresh again. Auspicious is Vṛndāvana, where Bhakti dances. However, these two [Jñāna and Vairāgya] are not able to cast off their old age because of the lack of people seeking them here.173

  Nārada then lauds Bhakti—and more specifically devotion to Kṛṣṇa, the supreme Bhagavān—as the only efficacious path in Kali Yuga. He declares that those in whose hearts Bhakti continually abides in the consummate form of preman (prema-rūpiṇī), their bodies purified (amala-mūrti) through devotion, attain liberation (mukti) from the cycle of birth and death and realize the ultimate goal of human existence: union with Kṛṣṇa in his transcendent abode, Kṛṣṇaloka or Goloka.174 Having nourished Bhakti in all of her limbs with his praise, Nārada makes an unsuccessful attempt to revive her sons, Jñāna and Vairāgya, by reciting the Vedic mantras, Upaniṣads, and Bhagavad-Gītā in turn. A voice from the heavens then tells him that the only way to release Jñāna and Vairāgya from the clutches of sleep and old age is to perform a particular ritual designated as a sat-karman.175 After making inquiries about the nature of this ritual to a series of sages who are unable to help him, Nārada seeks the aid of the four mind-born sons of Brahmā known as Kumāras—Sanaka, Sanātana, Sanandana, and Sanatkumāra—who are “ever engaged in Hari-kīrtana and, intoxicated (unmatta) with the ambrosial nectar of his līlā (līlāmṛta-rasa), are sustained by means of such stories (kathā) alone.”176 They reveal to him the sat-karman that alone will be effectual in reinvigorating Jñāna and Vairāgya: a Bhāgavata saptāha, seven-day ritual recitation of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa.

  That which is designated as a sat-karman has indeed been declared by the sages to be a jñāna-yajña (knowledge sacrifice). This consists of the recitation of the Śrīmad Bhāgavata, which has been recited by Śuka [the son of Vyāsa] and others. Bhakti, Jñāna, and Vairāgya will be infused with great strength by the sound [of the Bhāgavata]. The suffering of these two [Jñāna and Vairāgya] will be relieved, and the happiness of Bhakti will be restored. All the evils of Kali Yuga will disappear at the sound of Śrīmad Bhāgavata, just as wolves flee at the roar of a lion. Then Bhakti, which yields prema-rasa, accompanied by Jñāna and Vairāgya, will dance in every home and in every living being.177

  Nārada then organizes a Bhāgavata saptāha, seven-day ritual recitation by the Kumāras of all twelve books of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa, which is invested with the status of a saptāha-yajña, a seven-day yajña. During the saptāha-yajña, when the Kumāras are expounding the glories of the Bhāgavata and the fruits (phala) of reciting and hearing the text over a seven-day period, Bhakti spontaneously manifests in the form of preman (premaika-rūpā) out of the substance of the Bhāgavata’s narrative (kathārtha), adorned with its meanings (artha) as her ornaments. At the conclusion of the seven-day recitation, nourished by the nectar of the Bhāgavata’s narrative (kathā-rasa), Bhakti’s two sons, Jñāna and Vairāgya, are fully rejuvenated and restored to a state of robust youth alongside their mother.178

  This frame narrative of the Bhāgavata Māhātmya emphasizes a number of categories and practices that resonate strongly with the Gauḍīya project, which supports my contention that the text most likely derives from a Gauḍīya milieu in Vraja in the late sixteenth century or early seventeenth century. First, the Bhāgavata Māhātmya reimagines the history of bhakti as a singular movement that is synonymous with Kṛṣṇa bhakti traditions and that originated in South India and reached fruition in North India in Vṛndāvana—which is of course the seat of the “six Gosvāmins of Vṛndāvana” who developed and promulgated a distinctive form of Kṛṣṇa bhakti. Second, the specific language and imagery that the Bhāgavata Māhātmya employs in its representations of Kṛṣṇa bhakti evoke Gauḍīya discursive representations and practices—for example, its references to devotional practices such as kīrtana, dancing, and recitation of the Bhāgavata; its characterizations of bhakti with reference to such terms as preman, prema-rasa, and unmatta (intoxication); and its use of the terms Kṛṣṇaloka and Goloka to designate Kṛṣṇa’s transcendent abode. Third, the principal purpose of the Bhāgavata Māhātmya is to celebrate the glories of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa as the foremost of śāstras, and this purpose accords well with the interests of the early Gauḍīya authorities, who construct their theological edifice on the canonical authority of the Bhāgavata and present their own hermeneutical ventures as simply extensions of this paradigmatic śāstra. Finally, the Bhāgavata Māhātmya’s portrayal of the saga of Bhakti and her two sons, Jñāna and Vairāgya, recalls the reflections by the early Gauḍīya authorities on the relationship between the members of this triad, in which they insist that jñāna and vairāgya, knowledge and renunciation, are of value only when they arise spontaneously as the “offspring” (svātma-ja) of bhakti, as natural byproducts of the path of devotion, and remain ever yoked (yukta) to bhakti in the service of their mother. However, if jñāna and vairāgya are cultivated as distinct paths devoid of bhakti, they are ineffectual and worthless (phalgu).179

  Bhāgavata Purāṇa as the Nectar-Filled Fruit of Veda

  The Bhāgavata Māhātmya elaborates on the Bhāgavata Purāṇa’s own reflections concerning its consummate status as the supreme (parama) Purāṇa180 that is the culminating scripture of the entire canon of śruti and smṛti te
xts. In this context it at times directly invokes the Bhāgavata’s self-representations, in which it declares that “this Purāṇa known by the name of Bhāgavata is equal to the Veda (brahma-sammita)”181 and proclaims itself the “ripe fruit (phala) of the wish-fulfilling tree of Veda” that is full of ambrosial nectar (amṛta or rasa).182 Although the Bhāgavata Māhātmya thus at times invokes the Bhāgavata’s own self-representations, it goes beyond the Bhāgavata in seeking to clarify what it means to call this Purāṇa the essence (sāra) and fruit (phala) of the Vedic texts. The Māhātmya poses the question, if the Bhāgavata Purāṇa contains nothing more than the substance of the Vedas (vedārtha), why would one expect that recitation of the Bhāgavata would succeed in rejuvenating Bhakti’s sons, Jñāna and Vairāgya, when Nārada’s recitation of the Vedic mantras, Upaniṣads, and Bhagavad-Gītā had failed to revive them?183 The text proposes a solution to this potential dilemma by asserting that the Bhāgavata exists separately from the tree of the Veda as the fruit that is the very best part of the tree.

  The Bhāgavata narrative (kathā) is derived from the essence (sāra) of the Vedas and Upaniṣads. Having a separate existence from them as the fullness of the fruit (phala), it is the very best (atyuttama). In a similar way, the sap (rasa) that permeates the mango tree from its root to its top cannot be tasted, but when it is concentrated in a separate form as the fruit, it is delicious to all. Similarly, the ghee that is present in milk does not yield its delectable taste, but when it is separated out it is divine, exhilarating nectar (rasa) for the gods. The sugar that permeates sugarcane from top to middle to bottom when separated out is sweeter. The same is the case with the Bhāgavata narrative (kathā).184