A Ton of Crap
Page 16
The Declaration of Independence, The Articles of Confederation, The Constitutional Convention of 1787, Articles of the Constitution, The Bill of Rights, Amendments to the Constitution
LANGUAGE ARTS: Literary Terms
Genre, Allegory, Catharsis, Motif, Ambiguity, Metanoia
MATH: Square Roots
Simplifying Square Roots, Multiplying Square Roots, Adding and Subtracting with Square Roots, Division with Square Roots, Rationalizing Denominators, Higher Index Roots
SCIENCE: Stephen Hawking
About Stephen Hawking, Theory of Singularity, Work with Black Holes, Unified Field Theory, A Brief History of Time, The Thorne-Hawking-Preskill Bet
FOREIGN LANGUAGE: Icelandic
The Origins, Middle Icelandic, Modern Icelandic, Influences on Icelandic, Phonology, Useful Icelandic Phrases
LESSON 15A
THE CONSTITUTION
The Declaration of Independence Before the Constitution was ever written, the Declaration of Independence needed to be drafted, declaring the colonies’ freedom from the British. The Continental Congress met in the summer of 1776 to discuss the writing of the important document, and on June 11, Thomas Jefferson began the first draft. The final draft was submitted to the Continental Congress on June 28, and by July 2, the Continental Congress took a vote regarding their independence. On July 4, the document was released to the public.
LITERARY TERMS
Genre In literature, a genre is a specific category that literature follows. It is instantly recognizable and follows common conventions pertaining to that genre. Types of genres include nonfiction, in which everything written is true; mystery, in which all stories follow a crime or event that is not solved until the end; and fantasy, which features elements that are not realistic.
SQUARE ROOTS
Simplifying Square Roots For simplifying square roots, you begin by taking out any perfect squares. For example:
√25 = √52 = 5
When the number is not a perfect square, there might be a perfect square within the number. First you must factor the problem, and then take out the perfect square. For example:
√400 = √100 × 4 = √100 × √4 = 10 × 2 = 20
If there is no perfect square, you break it down to its simplest form. For example:
√98 = √49 × √2 = 7 × √2 = 7√2
STEPHEN HAWKING
About Stephen Hawking Stephen Hawking is a British mathematician and physicist who has made astounding discoveries in the fields of cosmology, and especially pertaining to understanding how our universe works. Hawking studied physics at Oxford, graduating with a first class honors in 1962. While studying physics in graduate school at Cambridge, Hawking was diagnosed with ALS (also known as Lou Gehrig’s disease), the disease that would leave him wheelchair-bound for the rest of his life.
ICELANDIC
The Origins Icelandic is a Northern Germanic language, and is actually a dialect of Norwegian. During the ninth century, settlers from Norway came to Iceland, speaking Old Norse. Due to the geographic location of Iceland, over time, the language began to diverge from Norwegian. The language also had influence from other Scandinavian settlers and as a result, the common traits to all of the different languages were reinforced, with the differences disappearing gradually.
LESSON 15B
THE CONSTITUTION
The Articles of Confederation Upon winning their freedom, the thirteen states began to operate under their own rules, and a centralized government was strongly opposed, fearing another monarchy could arise. As a compromise, the Articles of Confederation were drafted in 1776 and ratified in 1781. Essentially, this was the country’s first constitution. Each state would retain its freedom, and a committee of representatives — a Congress — would be responsible for declaring war, dealing with foreign affairs, and maintaining an army and navy. Though the document had a lot of good ideas, it had many shortcomings, and these led to the creation of the Constitution.
LITERARY TERMS
Allegory In literature, an allegory is a narrative that is symbolic of something else. With allegories, behind the literal translation of the story, a second, more meaningful story or idea can be found. For example, the literal story of Lord of the Flies is about children stranded on an island where chaos ensues; however, the allegory is about civilization as a whole and the evil of humankind.
SQUARE ROOTS
Multiplying Square Roots When multiplying square roots, simplify the problem into its basic form. For example:
√10 = √5 × √2 = √5√2
When working in the other direction, the problem must be simplified by writing no more than one radical. For example:
√3√12 = √3 × √3 × √4 = √3 × √3 × 2 = 3 × 2 =6
STEPHEN HAWKING
Theory of Singularity Stephen Hawking’s theory of singularity was his first major contribution to the world of physics. Using the work of Albert Einstein and Roger Penrose (with whom he collaborated), Hawking proved that the origin of our universe was in a singularity that has no end. Hawking’s research supported the big bang theory and began his lifelong interest in black holes.
ICELANDIC
Middle Icelandic From 1350 to 1550, the differences between Norwegian and Icelandic grew significantly. There was a dichotomy in Icelandic: Part of the Icelandic language remained pure and the other went through a significant transformation. Among the changes made was a diphthongization of long vowels, short vowels became less tense, previously absent consonant phonemes appeared, and unvoiced consonants were now aspirated. These changes were never written, but were phonetic.
LESSON 15C
THE CONSTITUTION
The Constitutional Convention of 1787 In 1787, the delegates from all of the states except Rhode Island met in Philadelphia to create a more centralized government. Two plans, the Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan, were presented. The Virginia Plan consisted of a powerful centralized government that had executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The New Jersey Plan would make changes to the Articles of Confederation and allow Congress to control taxes and trade to some degree. A compromise was reached, combining parts of both plans.
LITERARY TERMS
Catharsis In literature, a catharsis is a point in the narrative when there is a release of negative emotions, which in turn ends up either helping the character or helping the audience in understanding the character. The term comes from the Greek kathoros, which means “to make clean or purify.” Use of the term applied to literature first appeared in Aristotle’s Poetics, in which he describes the impact of drama on a viewer.
SQUARE ROOTS
Adding and Subtracting Square Roots With addition, if the root is the same, you just have to add the numbers before it. For example:
3√5 + 2√5 = 5√5
If a square root can be simplified into whole numbers, then they should be, and then continue with the problem. For example:
3√25 + 2√25 = 3(5) + 2(5) = 25
Only like radicals can be combined in the end, so if you end with a problem like 2√3 + 3√7, then that is your answer.
STEPHEN HAWKING
Work with Black Holes Hawking’s work with black holes has been critical in understanding our universe. Hawking proved that when two black holes merge, the new hole’s surface area is larger than the sum of the two black holes, and that surface area only increases and does not decrease. The two most important discoveries made by Hawking concerning black holes are that black holes give off heat and that there exist millions of small black holes created from the big bang.
ICELANDIC
Modern Icelandic Modern Icelandic formed around 1550 with the introduction of the printing press, the Lutheran Reformation, and the translation of the Bible. Several changes have been made to both the vowel system and the consonant system. The modern alphabet was established in the nineteenth century and based on that of the twelfth century, with some changes made to fit Germanic conventions. In the twentieth centu
ry, é was adopted, replacing je, and the letter z was abolished.
LESSON 15D
THE CONSTITUTION
Articles of the Constitution Currently, the Constitution has a preamble, seven original articles, a list of twenty-seven amendments, and a certification from the Constitutional Convention. The first article establishes the legislative branch, defining Congress as a bicameral body with a House of Representatives and a Senate. Article II establishes the role of the presidency. Article III describes how the court system will work, and includes the Supreme Court.
LITERARY TERMS
Motif A motif is a recurring image, phrase, element, expression, word, action, or object that has some sort of symbolic significance to the story. Motifs can help produce the theme of the narrative. A motif can also be a situation, character, image, idea, or incident that is found in other literature. For example, a love triangle or the corruption of power are both examples of motifs.
SQUARE ROOTS
Division with Square Roots Division is very simple. Begin by simplifying the problem from inside the square root. For example:
You can also split the division into radicals and then work from there, simplifying and canceling numbers out. For example:
STEPHEN HAWKING
Unified Field Theory In the 1980s, Stephen Hawking was able to answer one of Albert Einstein’s most famous theories that had been left unanswered, the unified field theory. This theory provides an explanation for conditions present at the beginning of our universe and the physical laws of nature. The theory consists of four main interactions: a strong nuclear force, electromagnetism, radioactivity’s weak nuclear force, and gravity.
ICELANDIC
Influences on Icelandic Though at one point in time Danish was the official language of Iceland, little of the language has stuck. In the nineteenth century, the language was purified to get rid of any Danish influence, and only a few Danish words are still used today. Though Latin influences can be seen from its Germanic roots, Icelandic has not been heavily influenced by any other languages with the exception of English, which the younger generation has adapted to the Icelandic morphological and phonetic system.
LESSON 15E
THE CONSTITUTION
The Bill of Rights The Bill of Rights are the first ten amendments made to the Constitution. These amendments establish the specific rights every American citizen has. The Bill of Rights was created due to the fears of Anti-Federalists who were wary of the Constitution and feared the presidency could turn into a monachy. These rights include the freedom of speech and religion, the right to bear arms, and the right to have a fair trial by a jury.
LITERARY TERMS
Ambiguity Ambiguity leaves room for different interpretations. It creates an openness in the text. Ambiguity can sometimes be considered a flaw in literature due to a lack of detail or vague characterization; however, it can also be used skillfully and can work to the advantage of the story.
SQUARE ROOTS
Rationalizing Denominators The denominator can never contain a radical. To fix this problem, you must find the common denominator, the exact same way you were taught to do with fractions growing up.
For example, to simplify
You must first find the common denominator and multiply it by both the top and the bottom.
STEPHEN HAWKING
A Brief History of Time Stephen Hawking has written many books. His most well-known book is A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes, which was first published in 1988. The book explains immensely complex issues such as the big bang, black holes, and light cones so that the nonscientist can understand it. The book is so immensely popular, a documentary was made about it, and the New York Metropolitan Opera is turning it into an opera.
ICELANDIC
Phonology Due to the fact that Icelandic is spoken by a small number of speakers in one concentrated area, there are relatively few dialects of the language. The language features diphthongs, monophthongs (pure vowels with a fixed articulation), and consonants that can be both voiced and unvoiced. In Icelandic, there is a contrast of aspiration (burst of air) between plosives (a consonant sound that stops airflow).
LESSON 15F
THE CONSTITUTION
Amendments to the Constitution During the writing of the Constitution, the framers were aware that over time, certain changes would be necessary, and included the ability to amend the constitution. There have only been twenty-seven amendments to the U.S. Constitution. Some of the most well known are the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery; the Nineteenth Amendment, which established women’s suffrage; and the Eighteenth Amendment, which prohibited the sale of alcohol. The Eighteenth Amendment was then repealed by the Twenty-first Amendment.
LITERARY TERMS
Metanoia Metanoia, which comes from the Greek metanoiein, meaning to change one’s mind, is when a character goes through a complete breakdown, and then begins the process of healing or a change of mind or transformation. Metanoia is one form of catharsis.
SQUARE ROOTS
Higher Index Roots Operations with higher roots such as cube roots, fourth roots, etc., are similar to square roots. With cube roots, take out factors that occur in threes. With a fourth root, take out factors that occur in fours, etc.
For example:
4√16 = 4√2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 2
3√54 = 3√3 × 3 × 3 × 2 = 23√3 × 2 = 23√6
STEPHEN HAWKING
The Thorne-Hawking-Preskill Bet The Thorne-Hawking-Preskill bet was a public bet made in 1997 between three physics theorists: Kip Thorne, John Preskill, and Stephen Hawking. The bet regarded the black hole information paradox. Hawking and Thorne argued that quantum mechanics needed to be rewritten due to the fact that the information carried by Hawking radiation must be new, and Preskill believed the opposite to be true. In 2004, Hawking conceded. In 2008, Hawking announced that he believed he had solved the paradox.
ICELANDIC
Useful Icelandic Phrases Here are some helpful phrases to use when traveling to Iceland:
Hello. Halló.
Good morning. Godan dag.
Good afternoon. Godan daginn.
Good night. Goda nott.
Thank you. Takk.
I don’t understand. Eg skil ekki.
Do you speak English? Talardu ensku?
How much is it? Hvad kostar?
Goodbye. Bless.
LESSON 15 QUIZ
Which of the following is true?
The Virginia Plan consisted of a powerful centralized government that had executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The New Jersey Plan would make changes to the Articles of Confederation and allow Congress to control taxes and trade to some degree.
The New Jersey Plan consisted of a powerful centralized government that had executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The Virginia Plan would make changes to the Articles of Confederation and allow Congress to control taxes and trade to some degree.
Both plans featured executive and legislative branches, but no judicial branch.
Both plans featured legislative and judicial branches, but no executive branch for fear that the presidency would turn into another monarchy.
What did the Thirteenth
Amendment do?
Gave women the right to vote
Prohibited alcohol
Abolished slavery
Repealed the prohibition of alcohol
What is a motif?
When a character goes through a complete breakdown, and then begins the process of healing or a change of mind or transformation
When there is room for different interpretations
A narrative that is symbolic for something else
A recurring image, phrase, element, expression, word, action, or object that has some sort of symbolic significance to the story
Which of the following is an example of a genre?
Science fiction
Romance
Fantasy
&nbs
p; All of the above
What is 9√14 + 4√7?
9√14
9√7
9√49
9
What does equal?
9
√27
√3
c. 3
Stephen Hawking proved that when two black holes merge:
The surface area of the new hole is larger than the sum of the two black holes.
The surface area of the new hole is equal to the sum of the two black holes.
The surface area of the new hole is equal to the difference of the two black holes.
The surface area of the new hole stays the same.
Stephen Hawking’s theory of singularity proved:
The origins of our universe was in a singularity that ends.
The origins of our universe was in a singularity which has no end.