A Ton of Crap
Page 26
VIETNAMESE
Qu´ôc Ngữ Beginning in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Asian languages started to become Romanized by Catholic priests in an effort to translate the Bible. French Jesuit priest Alexandre De Rhodes created quốc ngữ, the Roman-based script (using the Latin alphabet) of the Vietnamese language that is still used today. De Rhodes arrived in Vietnam in 1627, and within six months was able to preach fluently. Quốc ngữ grew increasingly popular with the people of Vietnam, and it was recognized as the official writing system of the nation following independence from the French in the beginning of the twentieth century.
LESSON 24D
WORLD WAR I
The Battle of Cambrai The Battle of Cambrai began on November 7, 1917, and continued through December. It was the first large-scale battle in World War I where tanks were used (they were introduced in the Battle of Fiers-Courcelette of 1916). Following the failure at the Third Battle of Ypres (with conditions less than suitable), the popularity of tanks dwindled, and they were seen as prone to malfunctioning and had limited use. Though the British would lose the Battle of Cambrai, the use of tanks during this particular battle showcased the strengths of these machines.
MYSTERY
Dorothy Sayers Dorothy Sayers published her first novel, Whose Body, in 1923. In Whose Body, Sayers introduces the detective that she would use for eleven more novels and twenty-one more stories: Lord Peter Wimsey. In the 1930s, Sayers stopped writing mystery novels, focusing on radio plays and theological dramas. In 1929, Sayers founded the Detection Club, a group of British mystery writers including members such as G. K. Chesterton and Agatha Christie.
LOGIC
Use of Parentheses Parentheses play an important part in writing out logical arguments. If we wanted to negate a sentence, we would use the symbol ~. But if we write ~A ^ B, that does not mean the entire thing is negated, but rather only A is. Parentheses help us clarify. So, we would write it out like ~(A ^ B). Parentheses also help distinguish the sentences while working. Logic problems can be very complex, sometimes with thirty lines of derivation, so the parentheses keep it all in an orderly fashion.
THE COPENHAGEN INTERPRETATION
Wave Function Another aspect of the Copenhagen interpretation describes wave function. According to the Copenhagen interpretation, the complete description of a wave-particle is its wave function. This means that information that cannot be derived from the wave function does not exist. For example, if a wave is spread out over a large area, the particle’s location cannot be determined. Therefore, since the wave function doesn’t provide a location, there is no location for the particle.
VIETNAMESE
Dialects There are three dialects found in Vietnamese. These correspond to the three geographical regions of Vietnam. The dialects are Hanoi (Northern Vietnamese), Ho Chi Minh City (Southern Vietnamese), and Hue (Central Vietnamese). Some also believe there to be a distinction between the Northern Vietnamese dialect and the North-Central dialect. The standard language is based on the Northern Vietnamese dialect, and the dialects are, for the most part, mutually intelligible. The Geneva Accords of 1954, responsible for dividing the country into North and South Vietnam, brought on a great migration of people from the north moving to the south. When Vietnam reunified in the mid-1970s, another wave of migration occurred. As a result of these migrations, there is a significant number of southern Vietnamese speakers in the north and vice versa.
LESSON 24E
WORLD WAR I
The United States Enters the War When the war broke out, the United States remained neutral and encouraged isolationism, even though there was pro-British propaganda spreading throughout the nation. On May 7, 1915, the Lusitania, a British passenger ship that brought people to and from the United States and Britain, was sunk by a German U-boat. The sinking of the ship, which had American citizens aboard, outraged the citizens of the United States. As wishes of neutrality started to wane, the British government intercepted the Zimmermann Telegram, which was from the German ambassador to Mexico, asking Mexico to attack the United States if the United States declared war on Germany. On April 6, 1917, the United States declared war on Germany.
MYSTERY
Agatha Christie Agatha Christie lived from 1876 to 1976, and is one of the most well-known and prolific mystery writers. Her protagonist Hercule Poirot, the Belgian private detective, appeared in forty-two of her seventy-eight books, including one of her most famous novels, The Murder of Roger Ackroyd, which came out in 1926. Much like Sayers, Christie’s novels took place in Britain’s upper- and middle-class country houses, in villages, and even on trains. Agatha Christie was able to produce work that was intricately detailed, complex, slightly humorous, and carefully researched (she was even an expert on poisons).
LOGIC
The Rules of Logic There are twelve rules of logic:
Assumption: You can assume anything, but you have to keep track of your assumptions
−> Introduction: If you presume A and then obtain B, you can write (A −> B)
^ Elimination: If you have (A ^ B), then you can also have A and you can have B
Repetition: If you have A, then you are allowed to have A
^ Introduction: If you have A and you have B, then you can have (A ^ B)
−> Elimination: If you have A and you have (A −> B), then you can have B
<−> Introduction: If you have (A −> B) and (B −> A), then you have (A <−> B)
<−> Elimination: If you have (A <−> B), and you have A, then you can have B (and vice versa)
~ Introduction: If you have A and find a contradiction, you can have ~A
~ Elimination: If you have ~A and find a contradiction, you can have A
v Introduction: If you have A, you can write (A v B) no matter what
v Elimination: If you have (A v B) and (A −> C) and (Y −> C), then you can have C
THE COPENHAGEN INTERPRETATION
The Nature of Collapse Another part of the Copenhagen interpretation is the collapsing of wavelengths. Since the wave function exists before any observation, the wavelength has to collapse in order for the observation to be made. If the momentum of a particle is measured, the particle’s wave function changes suddenly from a wave comprised of many momenta, to the wave with only one momentum that is being measured. What you observe is the collapsing of the wavelength.
VIETNAMESE
Speech Patterns When speaking in Vietnamese, pitch, or the way words and phrases are spoken, affects the meaning. This means that Vietnamese is what is known as a tone language. There are seven types of pitch: mid-level, low, high rising, low falling, rising after a dip, low broken, and high broken. When a pitch is broken, that means it is glottalized. The language also makes use of reduplication, in which a portion of a word or the entire word itself is actually repeated. This indicates plurality, intensity, and extension, and plants, fruits, birds, and insects are often reduplicated.
LESSON 24F
WORLD WAR I
The Treaty of Versailles The Great War ended in 1918 with the Treaty of Versailles. The treaty was made by the British prime minister, the French prime minister, and President Woodrow Wilson. As a result of the treaty, much of the land Germany had acquired over the war was given back, the German army and navy were dramatically cut down in size, Germany would not be allowed to have an air force, Germany was forced to pay £6,600 million to compensate for damages, and the country had to take complete blame for the war. The League of Nations was also created in order to prevent any further conflicts.
MYSTERY
Louise Penny The detective novel did not die when the Golden Age of Detective Fiction ended. Today, there are still great mystery writers who uphold the traditional detective stories. Louise Penny’s first book, Still Life, came out in 2005 to rave reviews, winning several awards, including the Dagger Award, the Arthur Ellis Award, and the Barry Award. Her work follows Chief Inspector Armand Gamache, head of Quebec’s homicide department. Though set in
Quebec, many elements of the English mystery novels are present. Penny currently has six books out, and she has won the Agatha Award for best mystery novel of the year four consecutive times.
LOGIC
Modus Ponens, Modus Tollens, and Hypothetical Syllogism Modus ponens is a very straightforward law. If you have (X −> Y) and you also have X, then you are allowed to have Y. This is essentially rule number six, −> Elimination. Modus tollens is the reverse of modus ponens. It states if you have (X −> Y) and you also have ~Y, then you are allowed to have ~X. Essentially, this means that if Y is false, X cannot be true. Hypothetical syllogism states if there is (X −> Y) and you also have (Y −> Z), then you can have (X −> Z).
THE COPENHAGEN INTERPRETATION
Criticism The most famous attempt at debunking quantum mechanics and the most well-known challenge to the Copenhagen interpretation was the Einstein-
Podolsky-Rosen proposition. In 1935, Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen formulated an experiment to prove that quantum mechanics was incomplete. Their proposition claimed that, assuming that nothing can move faster than the speed of light, it is impossible for something to transport from one point to another in no time. This requires communication that is faster than light, which Einstein’s general theory of relativity proved did not exist.
VIETNAMESE
Useful Vietnamese Phrases Here are some helpful phrases to use when you are traveling in Vietnam:
Hello. Chào anh (to a man). Chào chi. (to a woman).
Good morning. Chào buổi sang.
Good afternoon. Xin chào.
Good evening. Chào buổi tối.
Good night. Chúc ngủ ngon.
Excuse me. Xin lỗi.
Thank you. Cảm o’n ông (to a man). Cảm o’n bà (to a woman).
Where’s the toilet? Cầu tiêu ở đâu?
How much is this? Cái này giá bao nhiêu?
Goodbye. Chào anh (to a man). Chào chi. (to a woman).
LESSON 24 QUIZ
What was the first significant battle fought that proved that the war would not be short and introduced trench warfare?
The Battle of Cambrai
The Battle of Tannenburg
The First Battle at Versailles
The First Battle at the Marne
Which of the following was a result of the Treaty of Versailles?
Much of the land Germany had acquired over the war was given back.
Germany would not be allowed to have an air force.
Germany was forced to pay £6,600 million to compensate for damages.
All of the above.
What mystery writer was not a part of the Detection Club?
Dorothy Sayers
Louise Penny
Agatha Christie
G. K. Chesterton
“The Murders in the Rue Morgue,” published in 1841, is considered the very first mystery and was written by:
Edgar Allan Poe
Dorothy Sayers
C. Auguste Dupin
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
Which of the following states the second rule of logic?
If you have A, then you are allowed to have A
If you have A, you can write (A v B) no matter what
If you presume A and then obtain B, you can write (A −> B)
If you have (A v B) and (A −> C) and (Y −> C), then you can have C
Which of the following is a
negation of the term: A ^ B.
~A v B
~(A ^ B).
~(A v B)
A ^ ~B
The Copenhagen interpretation contradicts:
Schrödinger’s cat
Collapsing of wavelengths
Quantum mechanics
Many-worlds theory
The most well known challenge to the Copenhagen interpretation is:
The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen proposition
Quantum suicide
Schrödinger’s cat
The many-worlds theory
In Vietnamese, mid-level, low, high rising, low falling, rising after a dip, low broken, and high broken are all examples of:
Different intensities
Different types of plurality
Different types of pitch
Different types of reduplication
The Roman-based script of the Vietnamese language that is still used today is called:
Xin chào
quốc ngũ
Chào anh
Chào chi.
ANSWER KEY: d, d, b, a, c, b, d, a, c, b
Lesson 25
HISTORY: The Wright Brothers
Early Attempts at Flight Prior to the Wright Brothers, The Study of Birds, The Wright Brothers’ Gliders, The Flyer, The First Manned Flight, The Vin Fiz
LANGUAGE ARTS: Edgar Allan Poe
Poe’s Early Life, The American Romantic Movement, “The Raven,”
His Death, Griswold’s Obituary, The
Poe Toaster
MATH: Probability
What Is Probability?, Probability of an Event, Complementary Events, Probability and Area, Coin Probability, Mutually Exclusive Events
SCIENCE: String Theory
Theoretical Physics, Strings and Membranes, Quantum Gravity, Unification of Forces, Supersymmetry, Extra Dimensions
FOREIGN LANGUAGE: Hebrew
The Origins, Revival of the Language, Modern Israeli Hebrew, Hebrew in Judaism, Writing System, Useful Hebrew Phrases
LESSON 25A
THE WRIGHT BROTHERS
Early Attempts at Flight Prior to the Wright Brothers Humans have always had the desire to fly. In the 1480s, Leonardo da Vinci designed a concept for a machine that had birdlike wings called the ornithopter. In 1783, Joseph Michel and Jacques Etienne Montgolfier created the first hot-air balloon, and in the 1800s, Sir George Cayley created the first gliders capable of carrying humans. In 1891, German engineer Otto Lilienthal created the first glider that could fly long distances. That same year, Samuel Langley realized that in order to fly, power was needed. He built a model plane that ran on a steam-powered engine and flew for three-fourths of a mile. However when he created a full-sized version, the aerodrome was too heavy and crashed. In 1894, Octave Chanute created the biplane. This would become the basis for the Wright brothers’ design.
EDGAR ALLAN POE
Poe’s Early Life Edgar Poe was born on January 19, 1809, in Boston, Massachusetts. Poe’s mother had left his father and had taken the kids with her. When Poe was only two years old, his mother died. Edgar was taken in by Frances and John Allan. Poe spent five years studying in England, and in 1826, he attended the University of Virginia. Less than a year later, Poe quit school due to drinking and being in heavy debt. The next year, he joined the army. By 1835, Poe was living in Baltimore, working as an editor of a newspaper. In 1836, Poe married his thirteen-year-old cousin and moved to New York City. In 1845, his wife would die of tuberculosis two years after “The Raven” was published.
PROBABILITY
What Is Probability? Probability is the study of the likelihood or chance of a particular event occurring. With problems regarding probability, identifying all of the different outcomes that can actually happen is crucial to understanding how to solve the problem. When you flip a coin, you want to know what the likelihood is that you’ll get heads. When you pick a card from a deck, you want to figure out the probability that the card is a seven, or that the card will be hearts. Probability is about how likely an event is to occur.
STRING THEORY
Theoretical Physics In theoretical physics, math is used to explain aspects of nature. Often, the formulas that are designed cannot be tested with an actual model, and this is what separates theoretical physics from empirical physics. A theoretical physics theory should accurately explain and predict certain phenomena with support from known observations. String theory is one of the most well-known theories in theoretical physics, and it is often known as the “theory of everything.” String
theory tries to explain how gravity fits with quantum physics.
HEBREW
The Origins Hebrew is a Semitic language, and a member of the Afro-Asiatic family. According to Judaism, Hebrew was the first language. Hebrew is a Northwest Semitic language which began around the third century b.c. The first written evidence of the language was from around the tenth century b.c., and this is what is referred to as Classic Hebrew. Around 1,700 years ago, the spoken language was displaced by Aramaic, though it remained a written language. Not until the nineteenth century was the spoken language revived.
LESSON 25B
THE WRIGHT BROTHERS
The Study of Birds From 1897 to 1899, the Wright brothers, Orville and Wilbur, rode their bicycles to the Pinnacles, a picnic spot near Dayton, Ohio. Many birds flew around the area, and the unique geography of the Pinnacles created an updraft, perfect for large soaring birds. There they observed the birds and came to the realization that in order to fly, their model needed to be based on large birds that soar. In 1899, after observing buzzards, the Wrights came up with their wing warping theory. The Wright brothers realized that as birds soared into the wind, lift was created as a result of the air going over the surfaces that were curved. To turn, birds change the shape of their wings.