A Ton of Crap
Page 42
TYPES OF ANIMALS
Mammals There are several characteristics that differentiate mammals from other animals. Mammals have hair or fur that covers the body (even some cetaceans, i.e., whales and dolphins, have a thin covering of hair); they are warm-blooded, meaning they are capable of regulating the temperature of their bodies; and they give birth to babies that are fully formed. Cetaceans are considered mammals because they breathe air with lungs, give birth to live offspring, have some hair, and are warm-blooded, just like humans, cats, dogs, elephants, and primates.
AMHARIC
Grammar Amharic is considered to be a pro-drop language. This means that pronouns can be dropped when speaking and are in some way inferable. Sentences without any elements emphasized will not feature independent pronouns. In Amharic, the verbs agree with the person, gender, and number of the subject. Gender is expressed in several different ways, and nouns are either masculine or feminine. The feminine gender not only indicates sex, but it is also used when indicating something little or when expressing sympathy or tenderness.
LESSON 37C
GULF WAR
Scud Missile Attacks Iraq had Scud missiles, tactical ballistic missiles developed by the Soviet Union that were designed to carry chemical and nuclear warheads. Casualties from Scuds ranged from extensive to very little. On January 17, Iraq fired a total of seven Scud missiles at Israel, which the Israelis were prepared for. The United States pleaded with Israel to not counterattack, which Israel agreed to, due to the fact that the United States promised to target and destroy all Scud missile sites in Iraq.
JOURNALISM
The Civil War By the American Revolution, newspapers were fairly common. By 1800, there were more than 200 newspapers in the United States. These newspapers, however, were not independent and objective pieces, but usually ways for political parties to get their messages across. The Civil War, however, changed the way newspapers wrote. Reporters were hired to act as war correspondents and report on what was happening. With the rail system and the telegraph, information could travel faster. Due to how much it cost to send telegraph messages, the writing had to be concise. This molded the way stories are written to this day.
CATEGORY THEORY
What Categories Are Made Of A category, known as C, is made up of three entities. Class ob(C) features elements that are referred to as objects. Class hom(C) features elements that are morphisms (which are really arrows). The morphism (known as f) features a source object that is unique (known as a) and an object it targets (known as b), so it would be expressed as: f: a → b (which can be stated as f is a morphism from a to b). The last mathematical entity that a category is made up of is a binary operation (shown as ○). This is known as the composition of morphisms, and can be broken down as this:
hom(a, b) × hom(b, c) → hom(a, c)
f: a → b and g: b → c is written as g ○ f
TYPES OF ANIMALS
Reptiles Reptiles have several distinct characteristics. Though they breathe air through their lungs like mammals, they are cold-blooded, meaning they do not have the ability to regulate the temperature of their bodies. In other words, the temperature of their bodies is dependent on the temperature of their environment. Reptiles live on land and in water, their bodies are covered in scales, and most lay eggs (vipers and boas are two examples of reptiles that give birth to live young, but this is uncommon for reptiles). The largest group of reptiles is snakes and lizards.
AMHARIC
Writing System The writing system of Amharic is based on the writing system of Ge’ez and it is known as Fidel. The writing system is an abugida (based on consonants), and the characters represent a combination of consonants and vowels. There are thirty-three characters in Fidel that each have seven forms. Like other Semitic languages, the symbols are very similar to one another, and the roots of words are consonants with vowels that are merely supplemental. Amharic is one of the few African languages that has its own writing system.
LESSON 37D
GULF WAR
Battle of Khafji On January 29, the Battle of Khafji was fought, lasting for a total of three days. Four days prior to the battle, the U.S. forces noticed the Iraq forces building up behind the border of Kuwait, reinforcing artillery and bunkers. On the night of January 29, the U.S. marines were in position, ready for an attack, and Soviet-built tanks approached. A convoy of Iraqi tanks followed, signaling the international sign of surrender—their cannons faced the opposite direction. The cannons suddenly swung around and began firing, and the Iraqis gained control of Khafi for the time being. The Allies attacked with air support and a barrage of fire, and it proved to be too powerful for Saddam’s forces. By January 31, Iraq’s offensive was finished.
JOURNALISM
Henry Stanley The daily newspapers produced in New York continued to redefine journalism. Henry Stanley became a special correspondent for the New York Herald in 1867. In 1866, the famous Scottish missionary and explorer of Africa, David Livingstone, went to Africa once again to study the Nile River. Dr. Livingstone vanished and was not heard from for a long time. The New York Herald sent Henry Stanley to Africa in search of Dr. Livingstone in 1871. In November of 1871, Stanley found Dr. Livingstone, and said the famous line, “Dr. Livingstone, I presume?” This was the beginning of investigative reporting.
CATEGORY THEORY
Completeness and Co-Completeness Initial objects occur if there is exactly one morphism for every other object f: S → X, while terminal objects occur if there is exactly one morphism for every other object f: X → T. Objects can also go through pushout and pullback. If, in a category, all pullbacks exist and there is a terminal object, it is finitely complete. If there is a category where all pushbacks exist and it has an initial object, then it is finitely co-complete.
TYPES OF ANIMALS
Echinoderms Echinoderms live in the ocean and do not have a brain, eyes, or heart. These animals do have (for the most part) mouths on the bottom of their bodies, an anus at the top, and many arms that radiate symmetrically from the center of the animal. The most common echinoderms are starfish and sea urchins. These creatures also have tube feet, which are tentacle-like and have suction pads that enable the creatures to move. Some, such as the starfish, are carnivorous; others feed on plankton, while still others eat detritus.
AMHARIC
Rastafarians The word Rastafarian is from the Amharic language. The Emperor of Ethiopia from 1930 to 1974, Haile Selassie I, was known as Ras Tafari, a combination of the Amharic word Ras which meant “head” (with the same meaning that the word Duke would have), and Haile Selassie I’s given name, Tafari. Rastafarians consider Haile Selassie I to be the returned Messiah and reincarnation of Jesus, though he himself, an Orthodox Ethiopian Christian, did not associate with the religion or believe that he was the reincarnation of God.
LESSON 37E
GULF WAR
End of the War The war ended by a series of ground attacks that lasted three days, and constant bombing from above. On February 24, Allied troops entered Iraq, targeting Kuwait City, west of the Iraqi flank, and then past the Iraqi lines. The next day, marines got to Kuwait City and the retreat route of the western flank was cut off. The third day was one of the largest tank battles ever, and the Americans were able to destroy the Iraqi tanks without losing a single one. On February 26, as Iraqi troops retreated, they set fire to around 700 oil wells. A large convoy of Iraqi troops formed along a major highway, which was bombed from above. On February 27, 1991, President Bush declared that Kuwait was liberated and that the war was over.
JOURNALISM
William Randolph Hearst William Randolph Hearst lived from 1863 to 1951. The son of a self-made millionaire, Hearst studied journalism at Harvard. While he was still at Harvard, Hearst told his father he wanted to run the San Francisco Examiner, and on March 7, 1887, William Randolph Hearst became the owner of The Examiner. In 1895, Hearst bought The New York Morning Journal, where he competed against his fellow Harvard classmate and m
entor, Joseph Pulitzer (and if you recall from the lesson on World War I, these two men are responsible for yellow journalism).
CATEGORY THEORY
Natural Transformations A relation between two functors is known as a natural transformation. Natural transformations allow for the transforming of one functor into another functor while also respecting the arrangement of morphisms of the categories. Besides the concepts of categories and functors, natural transformations is one of the most basic concepts in category theory.
TYPES OF ANIMALS
Mollusks Mollusks were one of the first creatures that inhabited the planet, with fossils of mollusks dating back to over 500 million years ago. On the outside, mollusks feature a hard shell that covers a soft organ. Mollusks can be found on both land and water. For example, oysters, clams, octopus, squid, slugs, and snails are all examples of mollusks. While some mollusks move by ejecting water from their bodies like the squid and scallop, others move with a “foot” (like slugs and snails), and still others, like clams and oysters, do not move, but rather stay stationary in one spot.
AMHARIC
Amharic Today In the thirteenth century, Amharic was the official language of the court in Highland Ethiopia, as well as the dominant language spoken. Today, Amharic is the national language of Ethiopia and spoken in all of the provinces. The language currently has 25 million speakers. Outside of Ethiopia, there are 2.7 million people who speak Amharic. Amharic literature first appeared in the nineteenth century.
LESSON 37F
GULF WAR
The Impact on the Soldiers When U.S. soldiers returned home, many began experiencing symptoms such as nausea, rashes, cramps, short-term memory, difficulty breathing, headaches, and even birth defects. This came to be known as Gulf War Syndrome. In 1994, a panel created by the National Institutes of Health ruled out biological and chemical warfare as the cause. As recently as 2008, it was declared that the evidence suggested that nerve gas, an anti-nerve-gas agent, and pesticides that were used for sand flies might be what caused the syndrome.
JOURNALISM
Muckraking After World War I, investigative journalists began exposing abuses and corruption from businesses and the government. Theodore Roosevelt praised the ideas behind this activity, but believed the journalists’ methods were irresponsible. One of the most famous muckrakers was Upton Sinclair, who wrote The Jungle in 1906. The book looked at the food and drug industry. After President Roosevelt read his book, he ordered that the meat-packing industry be investigated. Due to Sinclair’s work, the Meat Inspection Act was passed that same year.
CATEGORY THEORY
Duality In category theory, every theorem or definition features a dual. The dual can be found by reversing the direction of the arrows. If something is true in category C, then this means that the dual will also be true in Cop, or the opposite category. Similarly, if something is not true in C, then its dual is not true in Cop. Oftentimes, Cop is abstract and does not have to be a category that comes from a mathematical performance. When this is the case, the category D is said to be in duality with C when D and Cop are what is known as “equivalent as categories.”
TYPES OF ANIMALS
Marsupials Marsupials are a special type of mammal. The most common marsupials are found in Australia (the kangaroo, koala, and wallaby); however, there are marsupials in South America and Central America. North America has only one type of marsupial, the Virginia opossum. Marsupials feature an abdominal pouch that they use to carry their young. The mothers give birth early and the baby is not yet fully developed. The baby then climbs to the mother’s pouch from the birth canal, where it continues to mature for weeks (and sometimes months).
AMHARIC
Useful Amharic Phrases Here are some helpful Amharic phrases to use when traveling to Ethiopia. Note that these are written phonetically.
Hello. Sälam.
Welcome. In kwahn deh-na meh tash (to a man). In kwahn deh-na meh tah (to a woman).
Good morning. əndämn adäru (the ə is a schwa).
Good afternoon. əndämn walu.
Good evening. əndämn amäshu.
Pleased to meet you. Siletewaweqin dess bilognal.
I don’t understand. Algebagnim.
Excuse me. Yiqirta.
Thank you. Ameseginalehugn.
Where are you from? Irswo keyet not?
What’s your name? Simi man new? (to a man) Simish man new? (to a woman)
Thank you. Ameseginalehugn.
Goodbye. Chow.
LESSON 37 QUIZ
On January 17, Iraq fired a total of seven Scud missiles at Israel. The United States pleaded with Israel not to counterattack, which Israel agreed to do because:
The United States promised to give Iraq’s artillery to Israel.
The United States promised Israel the oil in the region when the war was over.
The United States promised Israel could own the land when the war was over.
The United States promised to target and destroy all Scud missile sites in Iraq.
The Battle of Khafji lasted a total of:
Three days
Three weeks
Three months
Three years
Henry Stanley was the first:
Newspaper publisher
Investigative reporter
Muckraker
War correspondent
Which of the following is a result of the Civil War?
Reporters were hired to act as war correspondents.
Due to how much it cost to send telegraph messages, the writing had to be concise.
Newspapers reported on current events instead of the message political parties wanted to get out.
All of the above
The processes that preserve the structure of categories are known as:
Fractals
Functors
Functions
Functels
If, in a category, all pullbacks exist and there is a terminal object, it is:
Finitely complete
Finitely incomplete
Finitely co-complete
Infinitely complete
Humans are:
Vertebrates
Invertebrates
Chordates
A and C
A starfish is an example of:
A mollusk
A marsupial
A reptile
An echinoderm
Amharic is a:
Romance language
Germanic language
Semitic language
Khosian language
The writing system of Amharic is:
An abugida
A Ge’ez
A Rasta
A selassie
ANSWER KEY: d, a, b, d, b, a, d, d, c, a
Lesson 38
HISTORY: Y2K
What Was Y2K?, Response by the U.S. Government, International Response, Panic, Solutions, Errors from Y2K
LANGUAGE ARTS: Joseph Pulitzer
Early Life, His Early Career in Publishing, The New York World, Yellow Kid, Journalism Schools, Pulitzer Prize
MATH: Prime Numbers
What Are Prime Numbers?, The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, Euclid’s Theorem, The Largest Known Prime, Trial Division, Prime Gaps
SCIENCE: Stem Cells
What Are Stem Cells?, Unique Properties of Stem Cells, Embryonic Stem Cells, Adult Stem Cells, Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells, Use of Stem Cells
FOREIGN LANGUAGE: Spiritualism, Mediums, and Talking to the Dead
Spiritualist Beliefs, Mediums, Communication with the Dead in Other Religions, Emanuel Swedenborg, Houdini’s Quest, How to Conduct a Séance
LESSON 38A
Y2K
What Was Y2K? In an effort to save memory on computers, it was common that for all computer software from the 1960s to the 1980s two digits were used to represent a year instead of four digits. By the 1990s, people began to realize that this meant the numbers would become 00 in the year 2000, and tha
t computers would interpret this to mean 1900. This would throw computers off completely. This bug, which existed not only in software but in firmware as well, would be a major threat to the financial, banking, utility, telecom, manufacturing, and airline industries.
JOSEPH PULITZER
Early Life Joseph Pulitzer was born in Budapest in 1847. In 1864, when Pulitzer was just eighteen years old, he came to America and enlisted in the army and fought for the Union in the Civil War. Following the war, Pulitzer moved to St. Louis, Missouri, and worked driving a taxi, waiting tables, and caring for mules. Pulitzer soon became a reporter on a local German newspaper, joined the Republican Party, and was nominated for state legislature. Even though his district was Democratic, Pulitzer won the election.
PRIME NUMBERS
What Are Prime Numbers? A prime number is a whole number greater than 1 that can only be divided by 1 and itself. Examples of prime numbers are: