Antony and Cleopatra
Page 44
As much as anything else it was the drama of Antony and Cleopatra’s suicides that helped to fuel the fascination with them, which persists to this day. Their stories grew, and over the centuries were embellished so that the truth began to be buried. Cleopatra became the far larger figure, more famous and more important in a way she had never been in life. Today an image of Cleopatra probably owes more to Elizabeth Taylor than the Ptolemaic queen, but is instantly recognisable, whether on screen or as a fancy dress costume. Antony lags behind, rarely mentioned unless in the same breath as Cleopatra.
This is not the place to trace the long cultural history of Antony and Cleopatra, for that is a major theme in itself and has already been dealt with in other books. Here, the focus has been exclusively on the Antony and Cleopatra of history, of what we know, and do not know, and sometimes what we guess. Fiction and drama freely invent and alter, but in the simple history there was ambition, pride, cruelty, ruthlessness, jealousy, deceit, savagery and passion enough. Neither Antony nor Cleopatra lived a quiet life. They will continue to fascinate, their story being retold and reinvented by each new generation. The same is almost as true of their most famous fictional portrayal, as new productions of Shakespeare’s play adopt different styles and presentations. Nothing any historian could say will ever stop this process, nor should it.9
The history is there for those who care to look and, as we have seen, the sources contain many gaps and difficulties of interpretation. It is unlikely that these will ever be filled and the mysteries will remain. There will be fresh archaeological discoveries, but these are unlikely to add more than small details to our picture of the world. The underwater excavations on the site of Alexandria have produced a great quantity of artefacts, although since the city was occupied for so many centuries only a small proportion date to the first century BC, let alone have any direct connection with Cleopatra. Yet such is the appeal of her name and story that people will continue to hunt for places more intimately linked to the queen and her Roman lover.
Recently, one team has claimed to be close to finding the mausoleum in which Antony and Cleopatra were interred – a story that rapidly made the newspapers and television news reports. Nothing has come of this so far, and such a find seems unlikely. It is true that such a discovery might provide much new information, although this would inevitably be mainly personal and not in any way alter our understanding of the politics of the time. Even so, as an historian, any new discoveries would be of interest. Yet in the main, I cannot help hoping that the excavators are unsuccessful. Neither Antony nor Cleopatra enjoyed much peace in their lives (although it is of course arguable whether or not they deserved more or less than they experienced). It would seem a shame if their remains ended up on display to crowds of tourists, or even examined, stored and catalogued in a museum basement. Both Cleopatra and Antony separately expressed the wish to be laid to rest next to the other. Better to let them stay like that, in the tomb that she began and was completed after their suicides.
FAMILY TREE
CHRONOLOGY
753 BC Traditional date for foundation of Rome by Romulus.
509 Expulsion of Rome’s last king, Tarquinius Superbus, and the creation of the Republic.
332–321 Alexander the Great visits Egypt and founds Alexandria.
323 Death of Alexander the Great. Ptolemy I becomes satrap of Egypt.
305–304 Ptolemy I declares himself king.
305-283/282 Reign of Ptolemy I Soter
282 Death of Ptolemy I, accession of Ptolemy II.
282-246 Reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus
273 Ptolemy II sends ambassadors to Rome, establishing friendly relations and encouraging trade.
246 Death of Ptolemy II.
246-221 Reign of Ptolemy III Euergetes I
221 Death of Ptolemy III.
221-204 Reign of Ptolemy IV Philopator
217 Ptolemy IV defeats Seleucids at the Battle of Raphia.
205 First Macedonian War between Rome and Philip V of Macedon ends in a peace treaty.
204 Death of Ptolemy IV.
204-181/180 Reign of Ptolemy V Epiphanes
201 Rome wins the Second Punic War with Carthage.
197 Romans defeat King Philip V of Macedon at the Battle of Cynoscephale.
196 Second Macedonian War between Rome and Philip V ends in his defeat. Rosetta Stone set up recording decree of Ptolemy V.
189 Rome defeats the Seleucid Antiochus III in the Syrian War at the Battle of Magnesia.
181 /180 Death of Ptolemy V.
180-164 First reign of Ptolemy VI Philometor
170-163 First reign of Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II Physcon as co-ruler
168 Rome defeats Perseus of Macedón in the Third Macedonian War at the Battle of Pydna. His kingdom is dissolved. Roman embassy forces Antiochus IV to withdraw his army from Egypt.
164 Ptolemy VI flees to Rome and appeals unsuccessfully to the Senate.
163 Ptolemy VIII flees to Rome and appeals unsuccessfully to the Senate.
163-145 Second reign of Ptolemy VI Philometor
163–145 Ptolemy VIII controls Cyrenaica.
154 Ptolemy VIII tries to occupy Cyprus, but is captured and returned to Cyrenaica.
146 Third Punic War ends with destruction of Carthage.
145 Ptolemy VI killed intervening in civil war in Syria.
145/144 Reign of Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator
145 /144 Ptolemy VII murdered by Ptolemy VIII.
145-116 Second reign of Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II Physcon
123–122 Tribunates and death of Caius Sempronius Gracchus.
116-101 Reign of Cleopatra III Euergetis
116-107 First reign of Ptolemy IX Philometor Soter II Lathyrus with Cleopatra III
113 Marcus Antonius (Antony’s grandfather) elected quaestor. He is tried and exonerated on a charge of seducing a Vestal Virgin.
107-103/102 First reign of Ptolemy X Alexander I with Cleopatra III
107–106 Ptolemy IX forced out of Egypt, and gains, loses and retakes Cyprus.
104–100 Five successive consulships for Caius Marius, who campaigns against and defeats the migrating Cimbri and Teutones.
103/102 Cleopatra III expels Ptolemy X from Egypt.
102–100 Marcus Antonius serves as praetor and governs Cilicia, where he campaigns successfully against pirates and is awarded a triumph.
101 Ptolemy X returns to Alexandria and murders Cleopatra III.
101-87 Second reign of Ptolemy X Alexander I with Cleopatra Berenice
100 Political violence in Rome as the tribune Saturninus is suppressed. Birth of Julius Caesar.
99 Consulship of Marcus Antonius.
97–93 Censorship of Marcus Antonius and Lucius Valerius Flaccus.
91—88 The Social War, the last great rebellion by Rome’s Italian allies.
88 Sulla marches his legions on Rome and seizes the city.
87 Marius occupies Rome. Marcus Antonius murdered. Ptolemy X expelled from Alexandria. Ptolemy X killed in naval battle.
87-81/80 Second reign of Ptolemy IX Philometor Soter II Lathyrus
83 (or 86) Birth of Mark Antony.
83–81 Sulla returns from the east and wins the civil war, making himself dictator.
81/80 Death of Ptolemy IX. For some months Cleopatra Berenice (daughter of Ptolemy IX and niece and widow of Ptolemy X) is sole ruler.
81/80 Reign of Cleopatra Berenice
80 Ptolemy XI (son of Ptolemy X), returns to Egypt. He marries and then murders Cleopatra Berenice.
80 Reign of Ptolemy XI Alexander II
80 Ptolemy XI killed by mob. Ptolemy XII (illegitimate son of Ptolemy IX) seizes power.
80-58 First reign of Ptolemy XII Auletes
78 Unsuccessful coup of the consul Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (father of the triumvir).
74 Marcus Antonius (father of Antony) serves as praetor and is given an extraordinary command against the pirates.
73–71 Slave rebellion in Ita
ly led by Spartacus, eventually suppressed by Crassus.
72 Marcus Antonius defeated by the pirates. He is ironically dubbed Creticus, but dies before returning to Rome.
71 or later? Antony’s mother Julia marries Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura and Antony is raised in his house.
70 Consulship of Pompey and Crassus. Censors expel Lentulus and Antony’s uncle, Caius Antonius, from the Senate.
69 Birth of Cleopatra.
63 Conspiracy of Catiline. Lentulus arrested and executed by Cicero after the Senate has passed the senatus consultum ultimum.
59 First consulship of Julius Caesar and dominance of the first triumvirate, his alliance with Pompey and Crassus. Ptolemy XII recognised as king and friend of the Roman people after paying them a heavy bribe.
58 Tribunate of Clodius. Roman annexation of Cyprus and suicide of Ptolemy (younger brother of Ptolemy XII). Ptolemy XII flees Alexandria and goes to Rome. His daughter Berenice IV is appointed queen.
58-55 Reign of Berenice IV
57 Aulus Gabinius made proconsul of Syria. He recruits Antony to command some or all of his cavalry.
57–56 Gabinius and Antony campaign in Judaea.
55 Second consulship of Pompey and Crassus. Ptolemy XII Auletes persuades Gabinius to restore him to his throne. Antony plays a conspicuous role in the expedition to Egypt. Auletes is restored and executes Berenice IV.
55-51 Second reign of Ptolemy XII Auletes
54 Crassus appointed proconsul of Syria and begins invasion of Parthia. Gabinius returns to Rome and is tried on several charges and eventually forced into exile. Late in the year Antony joins Caesar in Gaul.
53 Crassus defeated and killed by Parthians at Carrhae. Antony goes to Rome to campaign for election to the quaestorship. Elections delayed by political violence. Antony attempts to kill Clodius.
52 Clodius murdered. Pompey made sole consul to restore order. Antony elected quaestor. He returns to Gaul and serves at the siege of Alesia.
51 Death of Ptolemy XII Auletes. He is initially succeeded by Cleopatra ruling alone. Antony commands a legion during punitive expeditions in Gaul.
51-49/48 First reign of Cleopatra VII
50 Cleopatra forced to accept her brother Ptolemy XIII as coruler. Antony returns to Rome to seek election as augur and as tribune. Tribunate of Curio. Political tension heightens as his enemies attempt to have Caesar recalled from Gaul and prevent him from going straight into a second consulship. Antony becomes augur and tribune elect.
49 Antony’s tribunate. The Senate passes the senatus consultum ultimum. Antony, his colleague, Cassius and Curio flee Rome and hurry to Caesar. Caesar invades Italy to start civil war. Antony serves with Caesar as he overruns Italy. Pompey retreats to Greece. Antony left as tribune with propraetorian imperium to administer Italy. Caesar defeats Pompeian forces in Spain. Curio takes Sicily, but is killed in Africa.
49/48 Cleopatra flees from Egypt and raises an army.
48 Caesar’s second consulship. He leads invasion of Macedonia. Several months later he is joined by Antony and reinforcements. They are repulsed at Dyrrachium, but win a decisive victory at Pharsalus. Cleopatra leads invasion of Egypt, but is confronted by Ptolemy XIII’s army. Pompey arrives in Egypt and is murdered. Caesar arrives, demands money and declares that he will arbitrate in the dispute between the siblings. Caelius and Milo rebel in Italy and are killed.
48–47 Alexandrian War. Briefrule of Arsinoe. Death of Ptolemy XIII. Arsinoe captured and taken to Rome. Cleopatra rules jointly with younger brother Ptolemy XIV. In his absence, Caesar made dictator for a year, with Antony as his Master of Horse. The latter administers Italy. Caesar and Cleopatra cruise the Nile. Birth of Caesarion.
48-30 Second reign of Cleopatra VII
47 Tribunate of Dolabella. Senate passes the senatus consultum ultimum, but only when Antony brings troops into Rome is the tribune suppressed. Caesar returns after Zela campaign.
46 Caesar’s third consulship, with Lepidus as colleague. Antony holds no formal office and perhaps out of favour. Dolabella taken by Caesar to Africa. Caesar wins African War at Thapsus. He is made dictator for ten years, with Lepidus as Master of Horse. Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIV visit Rome and their rule is formally recognised. Caesar celebrates four triumphs. Arsinoe appears in the Egyptian triumph.
45 Caesar’s fourth consulship. Caesar wins Spanish War at Munda and returns to celebrate triumph. Antony publicly restored to favour and named as consul for the next year. Caesar made dictator for life. Twenty-four-hour consulship of Caninius Rebilus on 31 December.
45 /44 Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIV visit Rome again.
44 Caesar consul for the fifth time with Antony as colleague. In February, Antony plays a controversial role at the Lupercal. Caesar is murdered on 15 March. Dolabella becomes colleague. Antony rallies crowd against conspirators at Caesar’s funeral. Cleopatra returns to Egypt. Death/murder of Ptolemy XIV. Ptolemy Caesarion made co-ruler with Cleopatra VII. Antony seeks to build up own power on the basis of Caesar’s notebooks. Cicero begins to deliver the Philippics. Octavian arrives in Rome and accepts Caesar’s legacy. Antony goes to Cisapline Gaul and besieges Decimus Brutus at Mutina.
43 Octavian joins the consuls Hirtius and Pansa to defeat Antony, who retreats into Transalpine Gaul. Hirtius killed in battle and Pansa dies of wounds. Brutus seizes power in Macedonia and arrests Caius Antonius. Cassius seizes power in Syria. Dolabella defeated and commits suicide. Antony and Lepidus join forces. Octavian made consul in November. Octavian joins Antony and Lepidus to form the triumvirate. Decimus Brutus captured and executed. Caius Antonius is executed in reprisal. The triumvirs occupy Rome and begin proscriptions. Cicero is one of the victims.
42 Julius Caesar deified. Both sides prepare for war. Cleopatra’s subordinate in Cyprus aids Cassius, but the queen unsuccessfully attempts to take a squadron of ships to join the triumvirs. The two battles of Philippi are fought in October. Cassius and Brutus defeated and commit suicide. Antony placed in charge of the eastern provinces. Octavian returns to Italy. Power of Sextus Pompey steadily grows, allowing him to blockade Italy.
41 Antony levies taxes and appoints leaders throughout the east. Herod and his brother made tetrarchs in Judaea. Antony summons Cleopatra to Tarsus and they become lovers. Lucius Antonius consul and begins to agitate against Octavian. Arsinoe executed at Ephesus.
41–40 Antony and Cleopatra winter in Alexandria. Perusine War breaks out in Italy, with Lucius Antonius and Fulvia rallying Antony’s veterans and dispossessed farmers against Octavian. Antony’s commanders fail to intervene effectively and Lucius is besieged in Perusia. He surrenders and is sent to govern Spain, where he dies. Fulvia and Antony’s mother Julia flee to Athens.
40 Cleopatra gives birth to the twins, Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene. Parthians and their ally Labienus invade and occupy Syria. Labienus invades Asia Minor. Parthians support an attack on Judaea. Hyrcanus deposed. Herod escapes to Egypt, but declines offer of employment from Cleopatra. He goes to Rome. Antony travels to Athens, where he repudiates Fulvia. He sails to Italy and is joined by the Republican Domitius Ahenobarbus. They are refused admission to Brundisium and begin a siege. Reluctance of soldiers to fight each other encourages negotiation and leads to the Treaty of Brundisium. Lepidus marginalised. Octavian and Antony renew their alliance and the latter marries Octavia.
39 Negotiations with Sextus Pompey to relieve the blockade of Italy lead to the Peace of Misenum.
39–38 Antony and Octavia spend winter in Athens. Ventidius Bassus defeats Labienus and the Parthian prince Pacorus in a series of battles, reconquering Asia and Syria.
38 Octavian marries Livia. Renewal of conflict between Octavian and Sextus Pompey. Sextus wins two sea battles. Antony comes to Italy for a meeting, but Octavian fails to turn up. Antony goes to the east and takes over siege of Samosata, which eventually surrenders.
37 Antony again travels to Tarentum. This time negotiations occur and result in the Pact of Tarentum. Antony retu
rns to the east, but sends the pregnant Octavia back to Italy. He appoints several client kings, including Herod, Polemo, Archelaus and Amyntas of Galatia. Antony summons Cleopatra to Antioch and they renew their affair.
36 Sextus Pompey wins another victory, but is then decisively beaten at Naulochos. Lepidus attempts to seize control of Sicily and is deposed, his legions defecting to Octavian. Antony leads disastrous expedition to Media. Cleopatra gives birth to Ptolemy Philadelphus. Antony returns to the Mediterranean coast and summons Cleopatra.
35 Sextus Pompey flees to Asia and is killed. Antony spends winter in Alexandria. Octavia arrives with praetorians and supplies for the army. These are taken, but she is told to return to Italy.
35 —33 Octavian campaigns in the Balkans.
34 Antony consul for the second time, but remains in the east and resigns after a day. Antony leads small expedition to Armenia and captures King Artavasdes, probably through treachery. He is taken back to Alexandria and led in a Dionysiac procession into the city. The Donations of Alexandria occur soon afterwards.
33 Octavian consul for the second time, but resigns after a day. Agrippa is aedile and continues his extensive building and amenities programme in Rome. Octavian and his supporters begin more open criticism and attacks on Antony. Antony’s army concentrates on the Euphrates, but then he orders it to march to Asia Minor and begins to concentrate his forces in Greece. Antony and Cleopatra spend winter in Ephesus. Powers of the triumvirate formally lapse at end of the year. Octavian pretends to obey this. Antony ignores it and continues to use the title, but talks of laying it down in the future.
32 Domitius Ahenobarbus and Sosius consuls and begin attacks on Octavian. He replies and they flee to Antony. Antony and Cleopatra visit Samos and then Athens. Antony divorces Octavia. Munatius Plancus defects to Octavian. Octavian takes Antony’s will from the Temple of Vesta and has it read publicly. The communities of Italy take an oath of personal loyalty to Octavian. War declared on Cleopatra. Antony and Cleopatra station their forces along the western coast, with their headquarters at Patrae.