9 Cicero, ad Att. 10. 13, Plutarch, Antony 9, and Pliny, NH 8. 55.
10 For Cicero’s attitude in these months see D. Stockton, Cicero: A Political Biography (1971), pp.251–265, and T. Mitchell, Cicero: The Senior Statesman (1991), pp.232–261.
11 Cicero, ad Att. 10. 10 on writing frequently to Antony; the quote is from ad Att. 10. 8a.
12 Cicero, ad Att. 10. 10.
13 On the mutiny see Appian, BC 2. 47, Dio 41. 26. 1–35. 5, and Suetonius, Caesar 69.
14 See Cicero, ad Att. 9. 9. 3; for Servilius see CAH2 IX, p. 431, Dio 41. 36. 1–38. 3, Caesar, BC 3. 1–2, Plutarch, Caesar 37, Appian, BC 2. 48, with M. Gelzer, Caesar (trans. P. Needham) (1968), pp.220–223.
15 Caesar, BC 3. 2–8, Dio 41. 39. 1–40. 2, 44. 1–4, Appian, BC 2. 49–54, Plutarch, Caesar 37.
16 Caesar, BC 3. 8, 14–18.
17 Appian, BC 2. 50–59, Plutarch, Caesar 65, Antony 7, Dio 41. 46. 1–4; Caesar, BC 3. 25 admits to a belief that his subordinates were slow and had not taken advantage of every opportunity.
18 Caesar, BC 3. 24.
19 Caesar, BC 3. 39–44, Dio 41. 47. 1–50. 4, Appian, BC 2. 58–60; for ‘veterans of exceptional courage’ see Caesar, BG 8. 8.
20 Caesar, BC 3. 45–46.
21 Caesar, BC 3. 45–53, Plutarch, Caesar 39, Appian, BC 2. 60–61, Suetonius, Caesar 68. 3–4.
22 Caesar, BC 3. 61–70, Plutarch, Caesar 39, Appian, BC 2. 62.
23 Caesar, BC 3. 71–75, Appian, BC 2. 63–64, Dio 41. 51. 1.
24 Caesar BC 3. 77–81, Plutarch, Caesar 41, Appian, BC 2. 63, Dio 41. 51. 4–5.
25 Caesar, BC 3. 72, 82–83, Cicero, ad Fam. 7. 3. 2; Plutarch, Cato the Younger 55, Pompey 40–41, Appian, BC 2. 65–67, Dio 41. 52. 1; in general for Pompey’s strategy and attitude see R. Seager, Pompey the Great (2002), pp.157–163 and 166–167.
26 Caesar, BC 3. 86–99, Appian, BC 2. 78–82, Plutarch, Caesar 42–47, and also Dio 41. 58. 1–63. 6; on Antony’s role see Plutarch, Antony 8, Cicero, Philippics 2. 71.
27 Caesar, BC 3. 94, 102–103, Plutarch, Pompey 76.
XIII CAESAR
1 Caesar, BC 3. 103–104, Plutarch, Pompey 77–80, Appian, BC 2. 84–86, Dio 42. 3. 1– 4. 5, and R. Seager, Pompey the Great (2002), p. 168.
2 Plutarch, Pompey 80, Caesar 48, Dio 42. 8. 1–3; for a much more cynical view see Lucan, Pharsalia 9. 1010–1108.
3 Caesar, BC 3. 106, Alexandrian War 69, Dio 42. 7. 1–8. 3; Caesar’s cavalry bodyguard, BC 1. 41.
4 Caesar, BC 3. 110, with M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), pp.61–63, P. Green, Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (1990), pp.664–665, and G. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire (trans. T. Saavedra) (2001), p. 233.
5 Quote from Caesar, BC 3. 107; for the money see Plutarch, Caesar 48.
6 Plutarch, Caesar 48, Dio 42. 34. 1–2.
7 Plutarch, Caesar 48, Dio 42. 34. 3.
8 Plutarch, Caesar 49, Dio 42. 34. 4–35. 1, and on the claim that Cleopatra bribed Ptolemy’s guards see Lucan, Pharsalia 10. 5–8; for some of the modern discussions see Grant (1972), pp.63–64, J. Tyldesley, Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt (2009), pp.53–58, E. Rice, Cleopatra (1999), pp.33–35, J. Fletcher, Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend (2008), pp.100–112, and E. Gruen, ‘Cleopatra in Rome: Facts and Fantasies’, in D. Braund & C. Gill (eds.), Myths, History and Culture in Republican Rome: Studies in Honour of T. P. Wiseman (2003), pp.257–274, esp. 264–266.
9 Quotes from Dio 52. 34. 3 & 5 (Loeb translation by E. Cary).
10 On Caesar’s womanising see A. Goldsworthy, Caesar: The Life of a Colossus (2006), pp.84–89.
11 For Caesar’s receding hairline see Suetonius, Caesar 45. 2.
12 Caesar, BC 3. 108, Plutarch, Caesar 49, Dio 42. 35. 1–6.
13 For the mistreatment of the city of Salamis on Cyprus by Roman businessmen representing Brutus, see T. Mitchell, Cicero: The Senior Statesman (1991), pp.223–224, with references to the relevant letters of Cicero.
14 Caesar, BC 3. 109, Dio 42. 37. 1–3.
15 Caesar, BC 3. 111–112, Alexandrian War 1–3, Dio 42. 12. 1–4, 38. 1–4.
16 Plutarch, Caesar 49, Dio 42. 39. 2, Appian, BC 2. 90.
17 Caesar, Alexandrian War 4, Dio 42. 39. 1.
18 Caesar, Alexandrian War 13.
19 Caesar, Alexandrian War 5–22, Plutarch, Caesar 49, Dio 42. 40. 1–6, Suetonius, Caesar 64, Appian, BC 2. 90.
20 Caesar, Alexandrian War 24.
21 Caesar, Alexandrian War 26–32, Dio 42. 41. 1–43. 4, Josephus, AJ 14. 8. 12, BJ 1. 187–192.
22 Caesar, Alexandrian War 33, Dio 42. 35. 4–6, 44. 1–45. 1, Suetonius, Caesar 52. 1, Appian, BC 90; for the bemused attitude of scholars to this cruise see Grant (1972), pp.79–82, Tyldesley (2009), pp.98–100, Fletcher (2008), pp.125–153, M. Gelzer, Caesar (trans. P. Needham) (1968), pp.255–259, and also C. Meier, Caesar (1995), pp.408–410 and 412.
XIV M ASTER OF HORSE
1 Dio 42. 17. 1–20. 5.
2 Dio 42. 21. 1–2 with Broughton, MRR 2, p. 272; Cicero, Philippics 2. 25 claims that Caesar did not know of Antony’s appointment, but this seems unlikely.
3 Cicero, Philippics 2. 61–63, Plutarch, Antony 9; for On his Drinking see Pliny, NH 14. 148.
4 Dio 42. 27. 3–28. 4.
5 See D. Stockton, Cicero: A Political Biography (1971), pp.263–268, and T. Mitchell, Cicero: The Senior Statesman (1991), pp.262–266 with references.
6 Dio 42. 27. 3.
7 Caesar, BC 3. 20–22, Dio 42. 22. 1–25. 3; Caelius’ last letter to Cicero is Cicero, ad Fam. 8. 17.
8 Dio 42. 29. 1 –4, Plutarch, Antony 9, with C. Pelling (ed.), Plutarch: Life of Antony (1988), pp.136–140, Appian, BC 2. 92.
9 Dio 42. 50. 1–55. 3, Appian BC 2. 92–94, Plutarch, Caesar 51, Suetonius, Caesar 70, Frontinus, Strategemata 1. 9. 4.
10 R. Weigel, Lepidus: The Tarnished Triumvir (1992), pp.30–34.
11 Dio 48. 38. 2–3.
12 Cicero, Philippics 2. 64–69, 72–74, 78, Plutarch, Antony 10, Dio 45. 28. 1–4.
13 Suetonius, Caesar 50. 2.
14 Plutarch, Antony 10, Cicero, Philippics 2. 69, 99.
15 Plutarch, Antony 10, claims that there was a breach between Caesar and Antony. M. Gelzer, Caesar (trans. P. Needham) (1968), pp.261–262, is inclined to see this as serious. R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), p. 104, doubts this.
16 Plutarch, Antony 10–11, Cicero, Philippics 2. 75–78.
XV NOT KING, BUT CAESAR
1 Cicero, ad Att. 14. 20. 2.
2 Tacitus, Histories 4. 55, Dio 66. 3. 1, 16. 1.
3 Suetonius, Caesar 52. 2, Plutarch, Caesar 49; however, note also Plutarch, Antony 52, which suggests that the boy was not born until after Caesar’s death; for discussions see M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), pp.83–85.
4 Suetonius, Caesar 52. 1, and for discussion see E. Gruen, ‘Cleopatra in Rome: Fact and Fantasies’, in D. Braund & C. Gill (eds.), Myths, History and Culture in Republican Rome: Studies in Honour of T. P. Wiseman (2003), pp.257–274, esp. 258–260 and 267– 270.
5 Dio 53. 19. 1–20. 4, Appian, BC 2. 101, and Grant (1972), pp.85–86, 260, n. 13, including the much later source claiming that Ganymede was one of the captives.
6 Suetonius, Caesar 52. 1.
7 Suetonius, Caesar 76. 3.
8 Suetonius, Caesar 52. 1.
9 Suetonius, Caesar 44. 1–2, Pliny, NH 18. 211, Plutarch, Caesar 59, Macrobius, Saturnalia 1. 14. 2–3, T. Rice Holmes, The Roman Republic, Vol. 3 (1923), pp.285–287, M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968), p. 289, and Z. Yazetz, Julius Caesar and his Public Image (1983), pp.111– 114.
10 Dio 43. 42. 3, 44. 1–3.
11 Dio 43. 14. 7, 44. 1–46. 4, Cicero, ad Att. 12. 47. 3, 45. 3, ad Fam. 6. 8. 1, 6. 18. 1, Suetonius, Caesar 41. 2, 76. 1; see also R. Carson, ‘Caesar and the Monarchy’, Greece and Rome 4 (1957), pp.46–53, E. Rawson, ‘Caesar’s Heritage: Hellenistic Kings and their Roman Equals’, JRS 65 (1975), pp.148–159, and S. Weinstock, Divus Julius (1971),
esp. pp.200–206.
12 Dio 43. 50. 3–4, Suetonius, Caesar 42. 1, 81, Tiberius 4. 1, Plutarch, Caesar 57–58, Strabo, Geog. 8. 6. 23, 17. 3. 15, Appian, Punic History 136, Cicero, ad Fam. 9. 17. 2, 13. 4, 13. 5, 13. 8; also Yazetz (1983), pp.137–149, E. Rawson, CAH2 IX, pp.445–480, and Rice Holmes (1923), pp.320–324. For Cicero receiving unwarranted thanks from provincials see Cicero, ad Fam. 9. 15. 4.
13 Suetonius, Caesar 77, 79. 2, Dio 44. 10. 1, Appian, BC 2. 108.
14 Dio 44. 11. 1–3, Appian, BC 2. 109, Plutarch, Caesar 61, Antony 12, Cicero, Philippics 2. 84–87, De Divinatione 1. 52, 119, Suetonius, Caesar 79. 2; see also Weinstock (1971), pp.318–341.
15 Dio 43. 51. 1–2, 44. 1. 1, Appian, BC 2. 110, 3. 77, Plutarch, Caesar 58, Velleius Paterculus 2. 59. 4, Suetonius, Caesar 44. 3.
16 Cicero, Philippics 2. 79–82, Plutarch, Antony 11.
17 Cicero, ad Att. 13. 40. 1.
18 Suetonius, Caesar 77.
19 See R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp.56–59; Caesar’s comment is in Cicero, ad Att. 14. 1. 2; for the Salamis episode see, for example, ad Att. 6. 2.
20 Dio 43. 10. 1–13. 4, Appian, BC 2. 98–99, Plutarch, Cato the Younger 56. 4, 59. 1–73. 1.
21 Cicero, ad Att. 12. 21. 1, 13. 40. 1, 46, 51. 1, Orator 10, 35, Plutarch, Cato the Younger 11. 1–4, 25. 1–5, 73. 4, Cicero 39. 2, Caesar 3. 2, Suetonius, Caesar 56. 5, with Gelzer (1968), pp.301–304, Rice Holmes (1923), p. 311, and D. Stockton, Cicero: A Political Biography (1971), p. 138.
22 Syme (1960), p. 69; on Cassius see Cicero, ad Att. 5. 21.
23 Dio 44. 14. 3–4, Plutarch, Brutus 18; Appian, BC 3. 98; on Trebonius and Antony see Plutarch, Antony 13.
24 For discussion see A. Goldsworthy, Caesar: The Life of a Colossus (2006), pp.500–510.
25 Suetonius, Caesar 52. 3, 83. 2.
26 Appian, BC 2. 102, Dio 51. 22.3, with Gruen (2003), pp.259 and 270–272.
27 Cicero, ad Att. 15. 15. 2.
28 Plutarch, Caesar 66, Brutus 17, Antony 13, Dio 44. 19. 1–5, Appian, BC 2. 117, Suetonius, Caesar 82. 1–3.
XVI CONSUL
1 Appian, BC 2. 118, Plutarch, Antony 14–15, Dio 44. 20. 1–22. 3.
2 J. Osgood, Caesar’s Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire (2006), p. 29.
3 Cicero, Philippics 2. 28; R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp.97–103.
4 Appian, BC 2. 120–123.
5 Appian, BC 2. 123–136, Dio 44. 22. 3–34. 7; Osgood (2006), pp.12–14, Syme (1960), pp.102–103 and 107, D. Stockton, Cicero: A Political Biography (1971), pp.280–282, T. Mitchell, Cicero: The Senior Statesman (1991), pp.289–291, and E. Rawson in CAH2 IX, pp.468–470.
6 For Lepidus’ legion see Appian, BC 2. 118, 126, with P. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC—AD 14 (1971), p. 477.
7 Consul and Antonius, see Cicero, Philippics 2. 70; on Antony see Syme (1960), pp.105– 106.
8 Plutarch, Antony 14, Brutus 20, Dio 44. 35. 1–52. 3, Appian, BC 2. 137–148, Suetonius, Caesar 84. 2, with Osgood (2006), pp.12–13, and Syme (1960), pp.98–99.
9 Rawson in CAH2 IX, p. 470, Osgood (2006), pp.14–16 and 30.
10 Appian, BC 3. 2–3, 36, Cicero, ad Att. 14. 15, Syme (1960), pp.99.
11 Appian, BC 3. 2–8, Dio 44. 53. 1–7, 45, with Syme (1960), pp.109–111 and 115–116, Rawson in CAH2 IX, pp.470–471, and Osgood (2006), p. 30.
12 Cicero, Philippics 2. 92–100, ad Att. 14. 12.
13 Cicero, ad Att. 14. 13, 13a and 13b.
14 Cicero, Philippics 1. 20.
15 Dio 44. 53. 6–7, with Syme (1960), p. 109, Mitchell (1991), pp.292–293, and Osgood (2006), pp.35 and 40.
16 Cicero, ad Att. 14. 8, 20, with M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), pp.95–96, J. Tyldesley, Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt (2009), p. 108, and J. Fletcher, Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend (2008), pp.213–214.
17 Suetonius, Caesar 83. 1–2, Augustus 8. 1–2, Appian, BC 2. 143, Pliny, NH 35. 21, Dio 45. 1. 1–6. 3, with Syme (1960), pp.112–115.
18 Suetonius, Caesar 83, Cicero, ad Att. 14. 11 and 12, with Osgood (2006), pp.31–32; for the quote, Cicero, Philippics 13. 24.
19 Syme (1960), pp.115–122.
20 Plutarch, Brutus 21, Suetonius, Caesar 88, and Augustus 10, Pliny, NH 2. 93–94, Dio 45. 6. 4–8. 4, with Osgood (2006), pp.21 –22 and 40–41.
21 Syme (1960), pp.115–116, and Brunt (1971), pp.477–483.
22 Stockton (1971), pp.286–287 and 319–320, and Osgood (2006), pp.32–33.
XVII ‘ONE OF THREE’
1 R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp.123–124, D. Stockton, Cicero: A Political Biography (1971), pp.292–294, T. Mitchell, Cicero: The Senior Statesman (1991), pp.295– 306, and J. Osgood, Caesar’s Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire (2006), pp.41–42.
2 Cicero, ad Fam. 12. 3 (SB 345).
3 Appian, BC 3. 31, 40–45, Dio 45. 12. 1–13. 5, Cicero, Philippics 3. 4, 6, 38–39, 4. 5– 6, with Osgood (2006), pp.47–50; for a discussion of Legio Martia and a possible tombstone of one of its centurions see L. Keppie, ‘A Centurion of Legio Martia at Padova?’, Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies 2 (1991), pp.115–121 = L. Keppie, Legions and Veterans: Roman Army Papers 1971–2000 (2000), pp.68–74.
4 On the raising of legions see P. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC—AD 14 (1971), p. 481.
5 Appian, BC 3. 46, Dio 45. 13. 5, with Syme (1960), pp.126–127; on Antony’s popularity see Plutarch, Antony 4.
6 Quote from Cicero, ad Fam. 11. 4 (Loeb translation by Shackleton Bailey, SB 342); Sallust, Bell. Cat. 56. 1–3, describes the creation of the officers and organisation for two legions, which were then filled up with recruits as men and equipment became available.
7 Osgood (2006), p. 50.
8 Syme (1960), pp.127–150 and 162–171, Stockton (1971), pp.295–316, Mitchell (1991), pp.301–315.
9 Cicero, Philippics 11. 5–10, Appian, BC 3. 26, Dio 47. 29. 1–6.
10 Cicero, Philippics 5. 3, 4, 25, 31, 8. 27, Appian, BC 3. 63, with E. Rawson in CAH2 IX, pp.478–479.
11 Appian, BC 3. 50–51, Cicero, Philippics 8. 1, 25–28, 33, with Syme (1960), pp.167–173, Stockton (1971), p. 308, and Mitchell (1961), pp.312–316.
12 Cicero, ad Fam. 11. 21. 1; on the legions see Brunt (1971), p. 481.
13 Dio 46. 36. 3–5, Pliny, NH 10. 110.
14 For accounts of Forum Gallorum see Cicero, ad Fam. 10. 30; for Servius Sulpicius Galba’s account see Appian, BC 66–70, Dio 46. 37. 1–7, with Osgood (2006), pp.51–55, and L. Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army (1984), pp.115–118.
15 Appian, BC 3. 71–76, Dio 46. 38. 1–41. 5, with Syme (1960), pp.173–177, Stockton (1971), pp.318–323, and Mitchell (1991), pp.316–319; see Suetonius, Augustus 10. 4 for an heroic story of Octavian carrying a legion’s eagle to rally the men at the battle outside Mutina.
16 Plutarch, Antony 18, Appian, BC 3. 80–84, Dio 46. 38. 6–7, with Syme (1960), pp.178–179, and Brunt (1971), pp.481–484; for Caesar not shaving until he had avenged his men see Suetonius, Caesar 67. 2.
17 Appian, BC 3. 85–95, Dio 46. 39. 1–49. 5, with Syme (1960), pp.181–188, Stockton (1971), pp.329–331, and Mitchell (1991), pp.319–322.
18 Plutarch, Antony 19–21, Appian, BC 3. 96–4. 46. 50. 1–56. 4, with Syme (1960), pp.188–191, Osgood (2006), pp.57–61, and Rawson in CAH2 IX, pp.485–486.
19 Plutarch, Antony 19–20, Appian, BC4. 5–30, 37, Dio 57. 1. 1–14. 5, with Syme (1960), pp.190–196, and Osgood (2006), pp.62 –82; Plutarch, Antony 20 (Oxford translation, modified) for quote.
XVIII GODDESS
1 Cicero, ad Att. 14. 8, and quotes from ad Att. 15. 15.
2 For instance, M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), pp.95–97, on Cicero’s troubled relationships with women and most Greeks.
3 Josephus, AJ 15. 39, Against Apion 2. 58, Porphyry, Fragments of Greek Historians 260, and for a papyrus mentioning Ptolemy XIV in late July see B. Grenfell, A. Hunt et al. (eds.), The Oxyrhynchus Papyri (1898—), 14. 1629, with Grant (1972),
pp.97–98, J. Tyldesley, Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt (2009), pp.109–110, and J. Fletcher, Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend (2008), pp.214–215.
4 Strabo, Geog. 14. 6. 6, with P. Green, Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (1990), p. 669. Strabo says that Antony gave the rule of Cyprus to Cleopatra and Arsinoe, but that this arrangement was abandoned when he lost power. Since Arsinoe was dead long before Antony lost the civil war with Octavian, his loss of power can only refer to the period from late 44–43 BC.
5 Appian, BC 3. 78, 4. 59, 5. 8, Dio 47. 28. 3, with P. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC–AD 14 (1971), p. 480.
6 Appian, BC 4. 60–62, Dio 47.26. 3–30. 7.
7 Appian, BC 4. 63.
8 Appian, BC 4. 8–9, 61, 63, 74, 82, Dio 47. 31. 5, with Grant (1972), pp.100–105, and Tyldesley (2009), pp.143–144.
9 J. Bingen, Hellenistic Egypt: Monarchy, Society, Economy, Culture (2007), pp.72–74.
10 Appian, BC 4. 61, Pliny, NH 5. 58, Seneca, Naturales Quaestiones 4. 2, with D. Thompson, ‘Cleopatra VII: The Queen in Egypt’, in S. Walker & S. Ashton (eds.), Cleopatra Reassessed (2003), pp.31–34, esp. 33; for Alexandria’s Jews see Josephus, Against Apion. 2. 60.
11 CIL Suppl. No. 6583 = OGIS 129, with Thompson (2003), p. 33.
12 P. van Minnen, ‘A Royal Ordinance of Cleopatra and Related Documents’, in Walker & Ashton (2003), pp.35–44, and Grant (1972), p. 100, citing OGIS 194, and Tyldesley (2009), p. 141 for Callimachus.
13 See J. Tait, ‘Cleopatra by Name’, in Walker & Ashton (2003), pp.3–7, esp. p. 4, and J. Ray, ‘Cleopatra in the Temples of Upper Egypt: The Evidence of Dendera and Armant’, in Walker & Ashton (2003), pp.9–11, G. Goudchaux, ‘Cleopatra’s Subtle Religious Strategy’, in S. Walker & P. Higgs (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: From History to Myth (2001), pp.128–141, G. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire (trans. T. Saavedra) (2001), pp.271–285 and 289–293, Grant (1972), pp.99–100, and Tyldesley (2009), pp.121–122 and 125 –126.
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