14 Plutarch, Of Isis and Osiris, with discussion in Tyldesley (2009), pp.113–118, Grant (1972), pp.117–120, Goudchaux (2001), pp.130–131 and 133–137, and Hölbl (2001), pp.289–293.
15 Grant (1972), pp.103–105, and Tyldesley (2009), pp.144–145; S. Burnstein, The Reign of Cleopatra (2004), p. 21, rather overstates Octavian’s suspicion of Caesarion at this stage.
XIX VENGEANCE
1 Dio 47. 8. 3–4.
2 Cornelius Nepos, Atticus 9. 3–7.
3 Plutarch, Cicero 48–49, Antony 20, Appian, BC 4. 19.
4 Cornelius Nepos, Atticus 10. 4. 4 for the quote (Loeb translation by J. Rolfe).
5 See Appian, BC 4. 40, Dio 47. 7. 4–5, 8. 5.
6 For an interesting discussion of the impact of the proscriptions, their presentation and the role of Octavian see A. Powell, Virgil the Partisan: A Study in the Re-integration of Classics (2008), pp.55–62, 68–69. For an extreme version of the exoneration of Octavian at the expense of Antony and Lepidus see Velleius Paterculus 2. 66. 67. 4; on Sextus Pompey’s rescue of refugees see Appian, BC 4. 36; on large number of books devoted to the theme of the proscriptions see Appian, BC 4. 16.
7 Appian, BC 4. 31, Dio 47. 17. 2–4, with J. Osgood, Caesar’s Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire (2006), pp.82–83.
8 Appian, BC 4. 31–34, with Osgood (2006), pp.84–88.
9 Dio 47. 16. 1–5.
10 Appian, BC 4. 63–82, Dio 47. 32. 1–35. 6, Josephus, AJ 14. 271–276, BJ 1. 218–222, with Osgood (2006), pp.88–94.
11 Dio 47. 25. 3, and for examples M. Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage (1974), pp.498 –508.
12 R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp.149–161, Powell (2008), pp.51–75; for criticism of Octavian’s refusal to honour the pietas of others see Suetonius, Augustus 13. 1–2.
13 For example, Appian, BC 4. 100–101; BC 5. 17 provides a detailed discussion of soldiers’ attitudes, cf. Cornelius Nepos, Eumenes 8. 2.
14 Appian, BC 4. 88, 108; for discussion, but generally accepting a high estimate, see P. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC—AD 14 (1971), pp.485–488.
15 Dio 47. 39. 1, contrasting with Appian, BC 4. 137; for Tiberius see Velleius Paterculus 2. 113.
16 For this scale of reward see Appian, BC 4. 100.
17 Appian, BC 4. 3.
18 Appian, BC 4. 82, 86–87.
19 Appian, BC 4. 101–106, Plutarch, Brutus 37–38.
20 Appian, BC 4. 107–108, Plutarch, Brutus 39–40.
21 As an example of legionaries being dismayed by the loss of their baggage, see Caesar, BG 5. 33, contrasted with better discipline at BG 5. 43 by a different legion.
22 For the various versions of Octavian’s behaviour see Plutarch, Brutus 41, Antony 22, Dio 47. 41. 3–4, 46. 2, Velleius Paterculus 2. 70. 1, Suetonius, Augustus 13. 1, Pliny, NH 7. 147, with brief discussion in Syme (1960), pp.204–205, Osgood (2006), pp.95–96, and Powell (2008), p. 106.
23 For the first battle see Appian, BC 4. 109–114, Plutarch, Brutus 40–45, Dio 47. 42. 1–47. 1.
24 Appian, BC 4. 115–124, Plutarch, Brutus 45–48, Dio 47. 47. 2–48. 3.
25 Appian, BC 4. 125–131, Plutarch, Brutus 49–52, Dio 47. 48. 1–49. 4.
26 On Brutus’ head see Suetonius, Augustus 13. 1, Dio 47. 49. 2; in general Suetonius, Augustus 13. 1, Plutarch, Antony 22, Appian, BC 4. 135, Velleius Paterculus 2. 86. 2. A useful survey of the different versions of Antony’s and Octavian’s behaviour can be found in K. Scott, ‘The Political Propaganda of 44–30 BC’, Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 11 (1933), pp.7–49, esp. 21–23.
27 Gellius, NA 3. 9. 1–6.
XX DIONYSUS AND APHRODITE
1 Plutarch, Antony 23, Suetonius, Augustus 13. 3, Appian, BC 5. 3, Dio 48. 3. 1.
2 See R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp.206–207.
3 Appian, BC 5. 3, with P. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC—AD 14 (1971), pp.488–495.
4 Plutarch, Antony 23, Brutus 24.
5 Plutarch, Antony 24, Appian, BC 5. 4–6.
6 Plutarch, Brutus 30, Antony 24.
7 Appian, BC 5. 7, Dio 49. 32. 3; for Octavian’s verse see Martial, Epigrams 11. 20.
8 Josephus, AJ 14. 314–316, and 14. 301–31 (quotes from Loeb translation); see also J. Osgood, Caesar’s Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire (2006), pp.105– 106.
9 E. Sch¨rer, G. Vermes & F. Millar, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, Vol. 1 (1973), pp.277–279.
10 ‘No mean city’, from Acts 21. 39.
11 M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), p. 111, referring to Strabo, Geog. 14. 1. 23; confirming the rights of the temple at Ephesus see R. Sherk, Roman Documents from the Greek East (1969), no. 57.
12 Plutarch, Antony 25; on Dellius see Syme (1960), p. 214;p. 265 cites Strabo, Geog. 11. 13. 3, where it is noted that Dellius wrote an account of Antony’s expedition to Media.
13 Plutarch, Antony 26 (Oxford translation by R. Waterfield).
14 P. Green, Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (1990), p. 663 for quote.
15 Plutarch, Antony 26–27, Appian, BC 5. 1, 8–9, Dio 48. 24. 2, with Grant (1972), pp.111–118, G. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire (trans. T. Saavedra) (2001), pp.240–241, J. Tyldesley, Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt (2009), pp.149–152, and J. Fletcher, Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend (2008), pp.235–241.
16 Plutarch, Antony 25.
17 Josephus, AJ 15. 89, Appian, BC 5. 9, Dio 48. 24. 2. 1 am very grateful to Dr Dorothy King for pointing out to me the problems of associating the tomb at Ephesus with Arsinoe, or indeed the Ptolemies at all, on the basis of a supposed similarity to the Pharos, and also for providing me with a copy of her unpublished Ph D. thesis, D. King, ‘The Sculptural Decoration of the Doric Order, ca. 375–31 BC’ (King’s College London, 2000).
18 Plutarch, Antony 28–29, Appian, BC 5. II; for Arsinoe III helping to lead the Ptolemaic army at Raphia see Polybius 5. 83. 3; the importance of horses and hunting to the Greek and Roman aristocracies is well brought out in R. Lane Fox, The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian (2006), passim.
19 Plutarch, Antony 29.
20 For the importance of dice (alea), and the associations with decadence and poor character for Romans in this era see N. Purcell, ‘Literate Games: Roman Urban Society and the Game of Alea’, Past & Present 147 (1995), pp.3–37; for the self-dubbed ‘Parasite’ see OGIS 195, discussed in P. Fraser, ‘Mark Antony in Alexandria — A Note’, JRS 47 (1957), pp.71–74.
21 Plutarch, Antony 28.
22 Athenaeus, Epitome 4. 147 ff., citing Socrates of Rhodes for the feasts at Tarsus; on golden chamber pots see Pliny, NH 33. 49.
23 Plutarch, Antony 29.
XXI CRISIS
1 J. Osgood, Caesar’s Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire (2006), pp.108 –151.
2 On the Perusine War see Appian, BC 5. 12 –51, Dio 48. 5. 1 –14. 6, Plutarch, Antony 30, Velleius Paterculus 2. 74–76, with discussions in E. Gabba, ‘The Perusine War and Triumviral Italy, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 75 (1971), pp.139–160, R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp.207–212, Osgood (2006), pp.152–172, and C. Pelling in CAH2 X, pp.14–17.
3 Appian, BC 5. 52 –53, Dio 48. 52. –3, 16. 3.
4 Appian, BC 5. 52.
5 Plutarch, Antony 30, Appian, BC 5. 51, 54–55, 59.
6 Appian, BC 5. 55, Velleius Paterculus 2. 76.
7 Appian, BC 5. 56–66, Dio 48. 28. 1–30. 2, with Syme (1960), pp.129, 216–217, 242 and 253 – 255, and Pelling in CAH2 X, pp.17–20.
8 See Osgood (2006), pp.188–201, Syme (1960), pp.217–220; for Antony’s guilt over his treatment of Fulvia see Appian, BC 5. 59.
9 Appian, BC 5. 67–68, Dio 48. 31. 1–6.
10 Appian, BC 5. 69–74, Dio 48. 36. 1–38. 3, Velleius Paterculus 2. 77, Plutarch, Antony 32, with Syme (1960), pp.21–22, Osgood (2006), pp.205–207, and A. Powell, Virgil the Partisan: A Stud
y in the Re-integration of Classics (2008), pp.190–191.
11 Plutarch, Antony 33, Appian, BC 5. 76, Dio 48. 39. 2, Seneca, Suasoriae 1. 6, with M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), pp.129–130.
12 Osgood (2006), pp.225–231, quote from p. 229, and F. Millar, ‘Triumvirate and Principate’, JRS 63 (1973), pp.50–67.
XXII INVASION
1 Dio 49. 32. 4, Plutarch, Antony 36.
2 See in general E. Huzar, ‘Mark Antony: Marriages vs. Careers’, The Classical Journal 81.2 (1986), pp.97–111, esp. p. 98 for Fadia and the children, referring to Cicero, ad Att. 16. 11. 1 for the implication that the latter had died.
3 On Labienus’ father see R. Syme, ‘The Allegiance of Labienus’, JRS 28 (1938), pp.113–125, and W Tyrell, ‘Labienus’ Departure from Caesar in January 49 BC’, Historia 21 (1972), pp.424–440; on the son see Dio 48. 24. 4– 25. 1.
4 Dio 48. 26. 5, with R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), p. 223, and discussion of the campaign and its context in D. Kennedy, ‘Parthia and Rome: Eastern Perspectives’, in D. Kennedy (ed.), The Roman Army in the East, JRA Supplement 18 (1996), pp.67– 90, esp. 77–81.
5 For discussion of Roman and Parthian armies see A. Goldsworthy, The Roman Army at War 100 BC—AD 200 (1996), pp.60–68, Kennedy (1996), pp.83–84; on the execution of the victorious commander at Carrhae see Plutarch, Crassus 32.
6 Kennedy (1996), pp.79–81, J. Osgood, Caesar’s Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire (2006), pp.185, 225–228; for Hybreas see Strabo, Geog. 14. 2. 23–24.
7 Josephus, AJ 14. 330–369, BJ 1. 248–273, with Osgood (2006), pp.185–186, E. Schürer, G. Vermes & F. Millar, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, Vol. 1 (1973), pp.278–286.
8 Josephus, AJ 14. 370–376, BJ 1. 274–279.
9 Appian, BC 5. 92, Dio 48. 41. 7, 49. 2–3, with Syme (1960), pp.222—223 and 230–231, and Osgood (2006), pp.245 and251.
10 Dio 48. 39. 2–41. 6, 49. 19. 1–20. 5, Plutarch, Antony 34, Gellius, NA 15. 4, Frontinus, Strategems 1. 1. 6, 2. 2. 5, 2. 5. 36–37, and on Crassus, Plutarch, Crassus 31–33, with Kennedy (1996), pp.80–81, and Osgood (2006), pp.255 and 280–281; on Ventidius’ career see J. Seaver, ‘Publius Ventidius: Neglected Roman Military Hero’, The Classical Journal 47 (195), pp.275 – 280 and 300.
11 On the failure of Octavian to meet Antony at Tarentum see Appian, BC 4. 78–80; on Sextus Pompey see Osgood (2006), pp.20 –205 and 242 – 243, C. Pelling in CAH2 X, pp.24– 5, K. Welch & A. Powell (eds.), Sextus Pompeius (2002), passim, and A. Powell, Virgil the Partisan: A Study in the Re-integration of Classics (2008), pp.16–19, 97–100.
12 Plutarch, Antony 34.
13 See F. Millar, ‘Triumvirate and Principate’, JRS 63 (1973), pp.50–67, esp. 51 and 53, and Pelling in CAH2 X, pp.67–68.
14 Appian, BC 5. 93–95, Plutarch, Antony 35, with Pelling in CAH2 X, pp.24–27, and P. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC—AD 14 (1971), p. 502.
15 Syme (1960), pp.129 and 231, Osgood (2006), pp.298–300.
16 Josephus, BJ 1. 282–357, AJ 14. 377–491, Dio 49. 22. 6.
17 Dio 49. 23. 2–5, Plutarch, Antony 37, with Kennedy (1996), p. 81.
18 Suetonius, Augustus 62. 2, Velleius Paterculus 2. 75, with Syme (1960), pp.228–229, Osgood (2006), pp.231–232, and for more detail on her family and the marriage see A. Barrett, Livia: First Lady of Imperial Rome (2002), pp.3–27.
19 Suetonius, Caius 23.
20 Suetonius, Augustus 70, with comments in K. Scott, ‘The Political Propaganda of 44– 30 BC’, Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 11 (1933), pp.7–49, esp. 30–32, and Powell (2008), p. 74.
XXIII ‘L OVER OF HER FATHERLAND’
1 Plutarch, Antony 36.
2 Josephus, AJ 15. 23–31.
3 Dio 49. 3–5, with C. Pelling in CAH2 X, pp.28–30, and R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp.259–261.
4 Plutarch, Antony 36, Dio 49. 32. 5, Strabo, Geog. 14. 669, 671, with M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), pp.135–141, G. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire (trans. T. Saavedra) (2001), p. 24, and J. Tyldesley, Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt (2009), pp.162–164.
5 Josephus, AJ 15. 88–, 91–96, with Hölbl (2001), p. 242 and p. 254, n. 103.
6 On the titles and their implications see J. Bingen, Hellenistic Egypt: Monarchy, Society, Economy, Culture (2007), pp.57–62 and 74–79, contrasting with D. Thompson in CAH2 IX, p. 3 1, and ‘Cleopatra VII: The Queen in Egypt, in S. Walker & S. Ashton (eds.), Cleopatra Reassessed (2003), pp.31–34.
7 Thompson (2003), pp.31–34, argues that the ‘homeland was primarily, but not exclusively, Egypt, but Bingen (2007), pp.57–6 and 74–79, is more convincing. Thompson’s examples of the queen taking a personal interest in the welfare of a range of groups within Egypt does not seem more than the practical measures of a monarch wishing to remain in power.
8 G. Goudchaux, ‘Cleopatra the Seafarer Queen: Strabo and India, in Walker & Ashton (2003), pp.109–III; introduction of a type of cabbage from Rhodes, Athenaeus 9. 369; for failure to innovate see D. Rathbone, ‘Ptolemaic to Roman Egypt: The Death of the Dirigiste State?, in E. Lo Cascio & D. Rathbone (eds.), Production and Public Powers in Classical Antiquity (2000), pp.44–54, esp. 46–51.
9 S. Walker & P. Higgs (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: From History to Myth (2001), p. 234, ns. 218—222.
10 Josephus, AJ 15. 31–67, with E. Sch¨rer, G. Vermes & F. Millar, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, Vol. 1 (1973), pp.296– 297.
11 Josephus, AJ 15. 96–103. Josephus dates this encounter to 34 BC, but it may equally have occurred before Antony’s first Parthian expedition at the start of 36 BC.
12 Josephus, BJ 1. 397.
13 Rathbone (2000), pp.44–54.
XXIV ‘INDIA AND ASIA TREMBLE’: THE GRAND EXPEDITION
1 For example, Plutarch, Antony 34, Dio 49. 21. 2, and Tacitus, Germania 38, with C. Pelling in CAH2 X, p. 31, fn. 142.
2 J. Osgood, Caesar’s Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire (2006), pp.303–305.
**** 3 For Caesar’s planned expedition see Dio 43. 51. 1–2, 44. 1. 1, Appian, BC 2. 110, 3. 77, Plutarch, Caesar 58, Velleius Paterculus 2. 59. 4, Suetonius, Caesar 44. 3, and T. Rice Holmes, The Roman Republic, Vol. 3 (19 3), pp.3 6–3 7; on the operations against the Albani and Iberi see A. Sherwin-White, Roman Foreign Policy in the East 168 BC—AD 1 (1984), pp.307–308. Publius Canidius Crassus was no relation of Marcus Licinius Crassus, Caesar’s ally.
4 Plutarch, Antony 37.
5 Appian, BC. 110, Velleius Paterculus 2. 82 1 –2; for discussion see P. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC—AD 14 (1971), pp.503–504, Sherwin-White (1984), p. 311, fn. 37, and L. Keppie, ‘Mark Antony’s Legions, in L. Keppie, Legions and Veterans: Roman Army Papers 1971–2000 (2000), pp.75–96.
6 Josephus, AJ 14. 449, BJ 1. 32 4 for legions ‘recently levied in Syria.
7 Plutarch, Antony 38; for supply in general see J. Roth, The Logistics of the Roman Army at War (264 BC—AD 235) (1999), passim.
8 For Roman military intelligence in general see N. Austin & B. Rankov, Exploratio: Military and Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople (1995), passim, but esp. p. 73.
9 Plutarch, Antony 37–38, Livy, Pers. 130 for criticism of Antony.
10 For discussions of Parthian armies see the sources cited in chapter 22, n. 6.
11 Dio 49. 25. 1, Plutarch, Antony 38, with Pelling in CAH2 X, p. 32.
12 Plutarch, Antony 38, Strabo, Geog. 11. 13. 3–4, and Frontinus, Strategemata 1. 1. 6 on the route through Zeugma, with Sherwin-White (1984), pp.308–311.
13 Plutarch, Antony 38, Dio 49. 25. 3.
14 Plutarch, Antony 38, with Sherwin-White (1984), pp.311–315, and for the paces of draught and pack animals see A. Goldsworthy, The Roman Army at War 100 BC—AD 200 (1996), pp.287– 296.
15 Dio 49. 25. 2, Velleius Paterculus 2. 82. 2.
16 Plutarch, Antony 38, Dio 49. 25. 3–26. 1.
17 Plutarch, Antony 39. This incident is the basis for the assumption that he must have had more than the thirteen legions claimed by Velleius. The logic is that with two destroyed in the convoy, and ten led out in this operation, the remaining one legion would have been inadequate to guard the siege lines at Phraata. This is conjecture, and in any case ignores the possibility that elements of the ten legions also remained behind. In the end we simply do not know.
18 Plutarch, Antony 39, Dio 49. 26. 1–27. 1, with Sherwin-White (1984), p. 318.
19 Plutarch, Antony 40, Dio 49. 27. 2–28. 1.
20 Plutarch, Antony 41–42, Crassus 25.
21 For a discussion of missile weapons and effectiveness see Goldsworthy (1996), pp.183–190, 228–229 and 232–235.
22 Plutarch, Antony 42 –43, Dio 49. 29. 1.
23 Plutarch, Antony 44–45, Dio 49. 29. 2–4.
24 Plutarch, Antony 45.
25 Velleius Paterculus2. 82. 2.
26 Plutarch, Antony 46–48.
27 Plutarch, Antony 49–51, Velleius Paterculus 2. 82. 3. Dio 49. 31. 1–3, with Sherwin-White (1984), pp.320–321. Livy, Pers. 130, also claims that 8,000 men died ‘in storms’ during the march through Armenia, but does not give a figure for overall casualties. He also accuses Antony of ordering the march so that he could winter with Cleopatra.
28 See N. Dixon, On the Psychology of Military Incompetence (1994), for an interesting discussion of Raglan and other unsuccessful leaders.
XXV QUEEN OF KINGS
1 Plutarch, Antony 51, Dio 49. 31. 4. M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), p. 149, suggests that Leuce Come was chosen in case the Parthians had invaded Syria.
2 Appian, BC 5. 96–122; for summaries and more detailed references see C. Pelling in CAH2 X, pp.34–35, J. Osgood, Caesar’s Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire (2006), pp.98–303, and R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp.30– 31.
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