The Gulag Archipelago, Volume 1
Page 77
Supreme Soviet, 438, 641
Supreme Tribunal (Verkhtrib), 286, 295–98, 327, 366, 641; see also individual trials
Surikov, Vasily I., 517, 567, 634
Surovets, Nadezhda V., 46
Surovtseva, Nadezhda, 477, 482
Susi, Arnold, 202, 205, 213, 214, 216, 225, 289, 493, 508
Suvorov, 596
Suzdal: prison, 478–79, 480
SVE (Socially Harmful Element), 284
Svechin, Aleksandr A., 443, 634
Sverdlov, Yakov M., 307, 634
SVPSh (Contacts Leading to Suspicion of Espionage), 64, 284
Sweden, 272
World War II, Soviet internees, 83
“Tactical Center” case: trial, 327–33, 401
Taganka (prison; Moscow), 489
Tagantsev, Nikolai S., 433–34, 634
Taishet: camp, 513, 554, 560
Tanev, Vasil K., 247n
Tarakanov, 452
Tarle, Yevgeny V., 51, 634
Tatarin, Volodka, 580
Tatars, 25, 53, 59, 323
World War II, with Wehrmacht units, 84, 253n, 638
Teitelbaum, Moisei I., 404
Tenno, Georgi, 279
Terekhov, D., 158–59, 172
thieves, 67, 78, 145, 478, 505–06, 618–19
and “beavers,” 507, 546
execution of (1937–38), 438
and polutsvetnye (“bitches” or “halfbreeds”), 559, 580–81, 619
prisoner transport, 492, 498–99, 501–08 passim, 515–16, 529–30, 570–71, 572, 573, 575, 579–80
and “suckers,” 497–98, 505, 515, 571, 619
terms switched or sold, 560, 561
transit prisons, 536, 537, 543–44, 546, 547–48, 549, 559n, 560, 561
as trusties, 536, 543–45
see also “Four-sixths” law; “Seven-eighths” law
Tief, Otto, 214
Tikhon, Patriarch, 36, 326, 343–45, 634
“churchmen” trial, 322, 323
Moscow church trial, 346, 347, 348, 349
Time of Troubles, 342–43, 641
Timofeyev-Ressovsky, Nikolai V., 149n, 207n, 493, 597, 598, 599, 600, 603, 604, 634
Tito, Iosip, 247n
TKP see Working Peasants Party
TN (Terrorist Intent), 65
Tolstoi, Alexandra L., 333, 634
Tolstoi, Lev (Leo) N., 147–48, 197, 223, 372, 434, 605, 613
Resurrection, 499, 583–84
Tolstoyans, 28, 51
Tomsky, Mikhail P., 411, 416, 634
TON see Special Purpose Prisons
trade unions, 13n, 26, 28, 339, 439
transit prisons and camps, 38, 489, 533–64
thieves, 536, 537, 543–44, 546, 547–48, 549, 559n, 560, 561
trusties, 536, 543–45, 559–60, 570
Travkin, Zakhar G., 19, 20
treason: and Criminal Code, 61, 79
see also prisoners of war Tretyukin, Volodya, 580
Troitsky Monastery Prison see Solovetsky Islands
Tronko, Igor, 268, 269
Trotsky (Bronshtein), Lev (Leon) D., 300n, 370n, 410, 434, 467, 634
Trotskyites, 284, 414, 415
arrests and persecution, 39, 52, 90, 284, 472, 476, 477
Trubetskoi, Sergei P., 132, 634
Trushin, 491
Trutnev, 154
Tsarapkin, Sergei R., 597, 600, 604–05
“Tsarist Reds,” 39
Tsarist regime: laws and judiciary, 281, 287, 301, 432–34
Okhrana, 67, 195, 639
prisons and camps, 35, 132, 189, 409, 457–58 466, 467, 495n, 499–500
Tseitlin, Yefim, 413n
Tsvetayeva, Marina I., 188, 635
Tsvetkov, 322, 324
Tsvilko, Adolf, 146
Tubelsky, Leonid D. see Tur Brothers
Tukhachevsky, Mikhail N., 33n, 634
Tur Brothers (Pyotr L. Ryzhei and Leonid D. Tubelsky), 22, 635
Tvardovsky, 479
Tynyanov, Yuri N., 613, 635
Ukrainians: arrests, 62, 77, 91, 99–100
“Banderovtsy,” 86, 91, 519, 622
Union for Liberation of the Ukraine, trial, 51
World War II, with Wehrmacht units, 253n, 262n
Ulrikh, Vasily V., 289–90, 296, 368, 369, 635
Ulyanov, Aleksandr I., 14, 41, 134, 635
Union for Liberation of the Ukraine: trial, 51
“Union of Rebirth,” 357, 401
United States, 86, 90, 91, 101n,
World War II: repatriation of Soviets, 82n, 85, 249, 259–60; Yalta Conference, 185, 259
Univer, 421, 422, 426, 430, 431
Uritsky, Moisei S., 174, 314, 635
urki see thieves
Uspenskaya, 315–16, 320, 321–22
Uspensky, 322
Ust-Vym: camp, 243, 540, 584
Utyosov, Leonid O., 534, 635
VAD (Praise of American Democracy), 91
Valentin, 274, 279, 280, 546–47, 548
Valentinov (Volsky), Nikolai V., 466, 635
Vaneyev, 133
Varentsov, Ivan N., 43
VAS (Dissemination of Anti-Soviet Sentiments), 284
Vasilyev, 150n
Vasilyev-Yuzhin, Mikhail I., 282, 373n, 635
VAT (Praise of American Technology), 91
Vavilov, Nikolai I., 50, 445–46, 635
disciples arrested, 90
VChK see Cheka
Velichko, A. F., 44, 375
Veniamin, Metropolitan, 36, 345, 346, 349–50, 367
Petrograd church trial, 36, 350–52, 458n
Vereshchagin, Vasily V., 211n, 635
Verkhne-Uralsk: prison, 271n, 465, 466, 475, 479
Verkhtrib see Supreme Tribunal
vertukhai, 203
Vikzhel (All-Russian Executive Committee of Railroad Workers Union), 28, 641
Vinogradsky, N. N., 330
Vitkovsky, Dmitri P., xi, xii, 98, 242n
Vladimir: prison, 125n, 475, 479–83 passim
Vladimirescu, 608–10
Vlasov, Andrei A., 251–53, 257n, 258, 635; see also Vlasov men
Vlasov, Vasily G., 14, 152, 421–31 passim, 449–55 passim, 557
Vlasova, Zoya, 431n
Vlasov men, 85, 223, 243, 246, 251, 253n, 255–63 passim; see also Vlasov, Andrei A.
Vogt, 599–600
Voikov, Pyotr L., 41–42, 635
VOKhR (Militarized Guard Service), 157, 249
Volga Canal, project, 59, 285
Volkonskaya, Zinaida, 182
Volkopyalov, 149n, 154
Vologda: prison, 513, 534, 542, 569
Voloshin, Maksimilian A., 34, 635
Vorkuta: camp and projects, 82n-83n, 577, 578
Vorobyev, I. Y., 155
Vorobyev, N. M., 10
Voroshilov, Kliment Y., 124n, 454, 636
Voskoboinikov, K. P., 254n, 257n
Vostrikov, Andrei I., 5-6
VSNKh see Supreme Council of the Economy
VTsIK see All-Russian Central Executive Committee
Vul, 282
Vyazemskaya, Princess, 40
Vysheslavtsev, Boris P., 372, 636
Vyshinsky, Andrei Y., xii, 34, 62, 100–01, 139, 271n, 282–83, 288n-289n, 358, 373, 376, 377, 378, 384, 418, 459n, 553, 636
Vyushkov, 163–64
Warsaw: World War II, 257n
Waschkau, Günther, 291n
White Russians see Civil War, émigrés
White Sea Canal, project, xii, 42, 157
Workers’ and Peasants’ Inspection see RKI
Working Peasants Party (TKP), 386, 387
trial, 49–50, 57, 331, 400
World War I, 31, 219n, 242, 253n, 272, 343, 356–57
World War II, 63, 77, 81, 240, 252n-253n, 259n-260n
anti-Soviet fighting forces with Wehrmacht, 253n-254n, 254–55, 257n, 258, 260, 262n; émigrés, 254n, 257n; Estonians, Lithuanians, and Ukrainians, 253n, 262n; “Hiwi,” 246, 638; Krasnov and Kras
nov Cossacks, 85, 246, 254n, 259, 262n, 263, 627; Moslems, 87, 257n, 262n; prisoners of war as spies, 220, 221–22, 246–47, 247–48, 260, 261; Rodionovites, 254n, 257n; “Russian Liberation Army’’ (ROA), 251, 253, 257; Tatars, 84, 253n, 638; Vlasov and Vlasov men, 85, 223, 243, 246, 251–53, 255–63 passim, 635
arrests, 24–25, 60, 61, 78–86, 238, 270–71, 441, 507, 566, 579, 602; émigrés, 63, 84–85, 238, 262–66 passim, 566, 602; military, 79, 80, 81, 110, 238; military—prisoners of war, 25, 81, 82–83, 142, 164, 221n, 237–51 passim, 255–56, 259–60, 260–61, 602
criminals released for service, 81
deserters, 250–51
ending of, 235–36, 270–71
internees in Sweden, 83
repatriation of Soviets by Allies, 82n, 85, 249, 259–60
Resistance and partisans, 82, 244–45, 257n, 261, 263
war criminals, 84, 175, 176–77
Yalta Conference, 185, 259
see also prisoners of war (World War II); individual countries
Wrangel, Pyotr N., 137, 436, 636
Yagoda, Genrikh G., 34, 96, 157, 173, 314, 374, 375, 410–11, 415, 438, 465, 636
Yakubovich, 402n
Yakubovich, Mikhail P., 49, 370, 400, 401–07, 418
Yakubovich, Pyotr F., 636
In the World of Outcasts, 495n, 499, 500n, 561n, 577
Yakulov, 312, 316
Yakuts, 51
Yalta Conference, 185, 259
Yaroshenko, Nikolai A., 491, 636
Yaroslavl: prison, 469, 473, 477, 478, 480
Yasevich, Konstantin K., 267–68, 602
Yefimov, 362
Yefremov, Sergei A., 51
Yegorov, 350
Yegorov, P. V., 310–11
Yenukidze, Avel S., 412, 636
Yermilov, Vladimir V., 525, 636
Yesenin, Sergei A., 604, 636
Yezepov, I. I., 134, 135, 142, 144
Yezhov, Nikolai I., 76, 157, 427n, 438, 479, 636
Yudenich, Nadezhda, 74
Yudenich, Nikolai N., 213, 332, 636
Yugoslavia: World War II, 85, 219
Yurovsky, L. N., 50
Yuzhakov, 74
Zabolovsky, 71
Zalygin, Sergei P., 56n, 636
Zamyatin, Yevgeny I., 46, 215, 636
Zaozerov, 425
Zaozersky, A. N., 347
Zapadny, 469
Zasulich, Vera I., 281, 287, 636
Zavalishin, Dmitri I., 132, 636
zeks see prisoners
Zeldovich, Vladimir B., 483
Zelensky, 132
Zenyuk, 338
Zhdanov, Andrei A., 157, 441, 447, 636
Zhebrak, Anton R., 599, 636
Zheleznov, Foma F., 137
Zhelyabov, Andrei I., 287, 636
Zhilenkov, G. N., 253n
Zhukov, Georgi K., 252n, 636
Zinoviev (Apfelbaum), Grigory Y., 299, 300n, 397, 410, 411, 412, 413, 636
Zverev, G. A., 258n
P.S. Insights, Interviews & More . . .*
About the Author
* * *
Meet Aleksandr I. Solzhenitsyn
About the Book
* * *
Written in Secret: The Nobel Lecture
Read On
* * *
More from Aleksandr I. Solzhenitsyn
About the Author
Meet Aleksandr I. Solzhenitsyn
ALEKSANDR I. SOLZHENITSYN was born in Kislovodsk, Russia, on December 11, 1918. He earned a degree in mathematics and physics from Rostov University and studied literature through a correspondence course from the Moscow Institute of History, Philosophy, and Literature. A captain in the Soviet Army during World War II, he was arrested in 1945 for criticizing Stalin and the Soviet government in private letters. He was sentenced to eight years of incarceration, to be followed by “perpetual” internal exile, but was cleared of all charges in 1957 as part of Nikita Khruschchev’s campaign of de-Stalinization. Solzhenitsyn vaulted from unknown schoolteacher to internationally famous writer in 1962 with the publication of his novella One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, which Khruschchev himself authorized. The writer’s increasingly vocal opposition to the regime resulted in another arrest, a charge of treason, and expulsion from the USSR in 1974. For eighteen years of his exile, he and his family lived in Vermont. In 1994 he returned to Russia, thus fulfilling his longstanding prediction. He died at his home in Moscow on August 3, 2008.
Solzhenitsyn’s major works include the novels In the First Circle and Cancer Ward, the memoirs The Oak and the Calf and Invisible Allies, a cycle of historical novels with the series title The Red Wheel, and the monumental history of the Soviet prison system The Gulag Archipelago, which Time Magazine named the “Best Nonfiction Work of the Twentieth Century.” In 1970 Solzhenitsyn received the Nobel Prize in Literature.
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About the Book
Written in Secret
The Nobel Lecture
WHILE THE Nobel Lecture traditionally is delivered at the annual award ceremony in Stockholm, Solzhenitsyn could not risk the trip in December 1970, for fear he would be barred re-entry into the Soviet Union. Instead, he stayed in Moscow and worked on the lecture in secret. The finished manuscript was photographed and transferred onto a film negative; Solzhenitsyn then arranged for it to be smuggled to Sweden via a network of supporters. Transported across the Soviet border inside a portable radio, Solzhenitsyn’s lecture finally was presented to the Swedish Academy in 1972. In this lecture Solzhenitsyn introduced to the world the term “Gulag Archipelago.” He was already at work on the monumental history of the same name.
1
Just as that puzzled savage who has picked up—a strange cast-up from the ocean?—something unearthed from the sands?—or an obscure object fallen down from the sky?—intricate in curves, it gleams first dully and then with a bright thrust of light. Just as he turns it this way and that, turns it over, trying to discover what to do with it, trying to discover some mundane function within his own grasp, never dreaming of its higher function. So also we, holding Art in our hands, confidently consider ourselves to be its masters; boldly we direct it, we renew, reform and manifest it; we sell it for money, use it to please those in power; turn to it at one moment for amusement—right down to popular songs and night-clubs, and at another—grabbing the nearest weapon, cork or cudgel—for the passing needs of politics and for narrow-minded social ends. But art is not defiled by our efforts, neither does it thereby depart from its true nature, but on each occasion and in each application it gives to us a part of its secret inner light. But shall we ever grasp the whole of that light? Who will dare to say that he has defined Art, enumerated all its facets? Perhaps once upon a time someone understood and told us, but we could not remain satisfied with that for long; we listened, and neglected, and threw it out there and then, hurrying as always to exchange even the very best—if only for something new! And when we are told again the old truth, we shall not even remember that we once possessed it. One artist sees himself as the creator of an independent spiritual world; he hoists onto his shoulders the task of creating this world, of peopling it and of bearing the all-embracing responsibility for it; but he crumples beneath it, for a mortal genius is not capable of bearing such a burden. Just as man in general, having declared himself the center of existence, has not succeeded in creating a balanced spiritual system. And if misfortune overtakes him, he casts the blame upon the age-long disharmony of the world, upon the complexity of today’s ruptured soul, or upon the stupidity of the public. Another artist, recognizing a higher power above, gladly works as a humble apprentice beneath God’s heaven; then, however, his responsibility for everything that is written or drawn, for the souls which perceive his work, is more exacting than ever. But, in return, it is not he who has created this world, not he who directs it, there is no doubt as to its foundations; the artist has merely to be more keenly aware than others of
the harmony of the world, of the beauty and ugliness of the human contribution to it, and to communicate this acutely to his fellow-men. And in misfortune, and even at the depths of existence—in destitution, in prison, in sickness—his sense of stable harmony never deserts him. But all the irrationality of art, its dazzling turns, its unpredictable discoveries, its shattering influence on human beings—they are too full of magic to be exhausted by this artist’s vision of the world, by his artistic conception or by the work of his unworthy fingers. Archeologists have not discovered stages of human existence so early that they were without art. Right back in the early morning twilights of mankind we received it from Hands which we were too slow to discern. And we were too slow to ask: for what purpose have we been given this gift? What are we to do with it? And they were mistaken, and will always be mistaken, who prophesy that art will disintegrate, that it will outlive its forms and die. It is we who shall die—art will remain. And shall we comprehend, even on the day of our destruction, all its facets and all its possibilities? Not everything assumes a name. Some things lead beyond words. Art inflames even a frozen, darkened soul to a high spiritual experience. Through art we are sometimes visited—dimly, briefly—by revelations such as cannot be produced by rational thinking. Like that little looking-glass from the fairy-tales: look into it and you will see—not yourself—but for one second, the Inaccessible, whither no man can ride, no man fly. And only the soul gives a groan . . .
2
One day Dostoevsky threw out the enigmatic remark: “Beauty will save the world.” What sort of a statement is that? For a long time I considered it mere words. How could that be possible? When in bloodthirsty history did beauty ever save anyone from anything? Ennobled, uplifted, yes—but whom has it saved? There is, however, a certain peculiarity in the essence of beauty, a peculiarity in the status of art: namely, the convincingness of a true work of art is completely irrefutable and it forces even an opposing heart to surrender. It is possible to compose an outwardly smooth and elegant political speech, a headstrong article, a social program, or a philosophical system on the basis of both a mistake and a lie. What is hidden, what distorted, will not immediately become obvious. Then a contradictory speech, article, program, a differently constructed philosophy rallies in opposition—and all just as elegant and smooth, and once again it works. Which is why such things are both trusted and mistrusted. In vain to reiterate what does not reach the heart. But a work of art bears within itself its own verification: conceptions which are devised or stretched do not stand being portrayed in images, they all come crashing down, appear sickly and pale, convince no one. But those works of art which have scooped up the truth and presented it to us as a living force—they take hold of us, compel us, and nobody ever, not even in ages to come, will appear to refute them. So perhaps that ancient trinity of Truth, Goodness and Beauty is not simply an empty, faded formula as we thought in the days of our self-confident, materialistic youth? If the tops of these three trees converge, as the scholars maintained, but the too blatant, too direct stems of Truth and Goodness are crushed, cut down, not allowed through—then perhaps the fantastic, unpredictable, unexpected stems of Beauty will push through and soar to that very same place, and in so doing will fulfill the work of all three? In that case Dostoevsky’s remark, “Beauty will save the world,” was not a careless phrase but a prophecy? After all he was granted to see much, a man of fantastic illumination. And in that case art, literature might really be able to help the world today? It is the small insight which, over the years, I have succeeded in gaining into this matter that I shall attempt to lay before you here today.