Tulsa's Historic Greenwood District
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This December 20, 1915, photograph depicts the early phases of construction of the Kennedy Building at 321 South Boston Avenue, built by St. Louis developer S. Gallais. Pioneer Tulsa doctor Samuel Grant Kennedy purchased the structure and tripled its size. He left the word “Gallais” over the south entry. Kennedy was a charter member and the first director of the Commercial Club, a precursor to the Tulsa Chamber of Commerce. He also served on the city council and on bodies that helped to secure railroad service and spearhead the Spavinaw Water Project. Kennedy’s signature graces the original charter for the City of Tulsa. (Courtesy of the Beryl Ford Collection/Rotary Club of Tulsa, Tulsa City-County Library and Historical Society of Tulsa.)
Muscogee (Creek) Indians are seen standing near Main Street and the Frisco Railroad tracks in Tulsa in this c. 1893 photograph. Parts of Tulsa, Indian Territory, lay within the jurisdictional bounds of the Muscogee (Creek) Nation. The Perrymans, a family of Muscogee (Creek) ancestry, are among Tulsa’s founding families. (Courtesy of the Beryl Ford Collection/Rotary Club of Tulsa, Tulsa City-County Library and Tulsa Historical Society.)
This 1905 view looking east shows the Frisco Depot, located between Boston Avenue and Main Street on the north side of the railroad tracks. (Courtesy of the Beryl Ford Collection/Rotary Club of Tulsa, Tulsa City-County Library and Tulsa Historical Society.)
In this c. 1921 photograph, Tulsa mayor Thaddeus D. Evans (seated at the table, second from right) signs bonds to create the Spavinaw Creek Dam. Mayor Evans led Tulsa during one of its more ambitious undertakings, the Spavinaw Water Project. Mayor Evans’s administration completed the plans for the project, began purchasing land, created the first water board, and secured the services of General George Goethals, builder of the Panama Canal, as an advisor. Lilah Lindsey, Tulsa civic leader and women’s club founder, stands in the middle of the group, while the city clerk is seated next to Mayor Evans. Mayor Evans also presided over Tulsa during its darkest days—the 1921 Tulsa Race Riot that obliterated the African American community and opened a gulf of distrust that has yet to be fully closed. (Courtesy of the Beryl Ford Collection/Rotary Club of Tulsa, Tulsa City-County Library and Tulsa Historical Society.)
This July 4, 1886, photograph captures the Tulsa, Indian Territory, Fourth of July Parade. In the early 1800s, most of present-day Oklahoma was known as “Indian Territory,” home to Plains Indians and the forcibly removed Five Civilized Tribes, which included the Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Seminole, and Muscogee (Creek). Around 1890, pre-statehood Oklahoma consisted of the Twin Territories: to the west was Oklahoma Territory; to the east was a substantially diminished, in terms of land mass, Indian Territory. Tulsa became incorporated as a city on January 18, 1898. The oxcart seen here is being driven by the Wimberly family. (Courtesy of the Beryl Ford Collection/Rotary Club of Tulsa, Tulsa City-County Library and Tulsa Historical Society.)
This 1923 photograph captures the celebration of Tulsa’s first International Petroleum Exposition, known as the IPE, by way of a parade. The IPE exhibited the latest oil industry technology, provided a venue for oilmen to purchase up-to-date equipment, and educated workers and the public at large about the industry. (Courtesy of the Beryl Ford Collection/Rotary Club of Tulsa, Tulsa City-County Library and Tulsa Historical Society.)
This oil field gusher scene captures the essence of Tulsa’s early history. Once dubbed the “Oil Capital of the World,” Tulsa’s fortunes swelled with the demand for black gold. Scores of oil-related businesses set up shop in the Tulsa area. Immigration followed this economic good fortune. Walter White, assistant secretary of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), traveled to post-riot Tulsa to conduct damage assessment. White, whose blond hair and blue eyes concealed his African ancestry, managed to go undetected. He published his findings in the June 29, 1921, issue of The Nation, noting: “Tulsa is a thriving, bustling, enormously wealthy town of between 90,000 and 100,000. In 1910, it was the home of 18,182 souls, a dead and hopeless outlook ahead. Then oil was discovered. The town grew amazingly.” (Courtesy of the Beryl Ford Collection/Rotary Club of Tulsa, Tulsa City-County Library and Tulsa Historical Society.)
The Perryman home at Sixth Street and Boulder Avenue is seen in this c. 1894 image. The George Perryman family grew as it embraced increasing numbers of orphans. Rachel Perryman subsequently sold the property to Tulsa County for a new courthouse location. She stipulated that the payment be made in gold. Parts of the original residence still exist at a home between Thirteenth and Fourteenth Streets on the east side of Elwood Avenue. (Courtesy of the Beryl Ford Collection/Rotary Club of Tulsa, Tulsa City-County Library and Tulsa Historical Society.)
This is a portrait of Tulsa mayor Thaddeus D. Evans, a Republican elected in 1920 who served until 1922. Mayor Evans, Tulsa’s 15th mayor, led the city during the calamitous 1921 Tulsa Race Riot. His administration received acclaim for its work on the city’s water system. (Courtesy of the Beryl Ford Collection/Rotary Club of Tulsa, Tulsa City-County Library and Tulsa Historical Society.)
This 1908 image, “Reeder Return of Booster Train,” illustrates the widespread excitement for this burgeoning city. By 1908, Tulsa was well on its way to becoming “The Oil Capital of the World.” By the time of the 1921 Tulsa Race Riot, it boasted a population of around 100,000. Walter White noted in The Nation that “The town has a number of modern office buildings, many beautiful homes, miles of clean, well-paved streets, and aggressive and progressive business men who well exemplify Tulsa’s motto of ‘The City with a Personality.’ ” (Courtesy of the Beryl Ford Collection/Rotary Club of Tulsa, Tulsa City-County Library and Tulsa Historical Society.)
This 1895 photograph shows the Tulsa Market, located on Main Street between First and Second Streets. Note the signage that reads “Cash Paid for Hides” and the nod to the “most famous Indian Territory Deputy Marshal.” James Franklin “Bud” Ledbetter (1852–1937) served as deputy sheriff of Johnson County, Arkansas; deputy US marshal of the Oklahoma Territory; and sheriff of Muskogee County, Oklahoma. (Courtesy of the Beryl Ford Collection/Rotary Club of Tulsa, Tulsa City-County Library and Tulsa Historical Society.)
This undated photograph is entitled “Working on drilling rig.” Oil made many a fortune in Tulsa and fueled the economic explosion that made Tulsa, for a time, the talk of the nation. Tulsa’s population swelled to more than 140,000 by 1930. Walter White noted that Tulsa “lies in the center of the oil region and many are the stories told of the making of fabulous fortunes by men who were operating on a shoe-string. Some of the stories rival those of the ‘forty-niners’ in California.” (Courtesy of the Beryl Ford Collection/Rotary Club of Tulsa, Tulsa City-County Library and Tulsa Historical Society.)
This photograph from the Tulsa Star, dated August 19, 1914, shows the residence of Henry T. Wilson, an early Tulsa entrepreneur. Wilson leased out the house while he and his wife operated a hotel and restaurant at 120 East Archer Street. (Courtesy of I. Marc Carlson, Librarian of Special Collections and University Archives, The University of Tulsa.)
This 1918 image of the Red Wing Hotel, 202–208 North Greenwood Avenue, appeared in a number of advertisements in the Tulsa Star. The Red Wing Hotel was destroyed in the 1921 Tulsa Race Riot. (Courtesy of I. Marc Carlson, Librarian of Special Collections and University Archives, The University of Tulsa.)
This undated photograph shows the Tribune Building built in 1924 at 20 East Archer Street. The Tulsa Tribune, an afternoon daily newspaper, published a series of articles and editorials that inflamed racial tensions in the Tulsa community both before and immediately after the 1921 Tulsa Race Riot. (Courtesy of the Beryl Ford Collection/Rotary Club of Tulsa, Tulsa City-County Library and Tulsa Historical Society.)
This historical marker describes Tulsa County’s first oil well, completed on June 25, 1901, by drillers Dr. John C.W. Bland and Dr. Fred S. Clinton. This alpha well helped catapult Tulsa into the national spotlight. (Courtesy of the Beryl Ford Collection/Rotary Club of Tulsa, Tulsa City-Co
unty Library and Tulsa Historical Society.)
This 1912 photograph of a Tulsa-area oil field, the landscape dotted with oil wells, attests to the importance of oil to early Tulsa history. The crude bubbling beneath the surface fueled fortunes and transformed Tulsa into the “Magic City.” (Courtesy of the Beryl Ford Collection/Rotary Club of Tulsa, Tulsa City-County Library and Tulsa Historical Society.)
Chief Chilly McIntosh led the first contingent of Muscogee (Creek) Indians to Fort Gibson, Oklahoma, in 1827–1828. He led a scouting party up the Arkansas River and located and marked the site of the Creek Council Oak in 1928 as a ceremonial and ball ground for his fellow emigrants who followed. Some of the Greenwood District pioneers had ties to the Muscogee (Creek) Nation. Much of Tulsa sits in what was once considered “Creek Country.” This is a copy of a painting done by John Mix Stanley at Fort Gibson in 1843. (Courtesy of the Beryl Ford Collection/Rotary Club of Tulsa, Tulsa City-County Library and Tulsa Historical Society.)
Shown here is a portrait of the multi-racial Perryman family, which was composed of Muskogee (Creek), African, and Caucasian individuals. The Perryman family was one of Tulsa’s founding families. Seen in this image are, from left to right, (first row) Sam Beaver and unidentified; (second row) Spot Childers, George B. Perryman, Moses Perryman, unidentified, and Glen Flippen; (third row) Reuben Partridge, Tom Kinney, unidentified, and Roy West. (Courtesy of the Beryl Ford Collection/Rotary Club of Tulsa, Tulsa City-County Library and Tulsa Historical Society.)
Dr. Andrew C. Jackson, photographed around 1920, ranked among the premiere African American physicians of his day. Educated at the Mayo Clinic, Dr. Jackson’s prowess as a surgeon afforded him the rare opportunity to service both black and white patients. A teenage white boy murdered Dr. Jackson after the unarmed physician left his home in surrender during the 1921 Tulsa Race Riot. NAACP Assistant Secretary Walter White reported in The Nation that Dr. Jackson had an estimated net worth of $100,000. Moreover, White pointed out that the Mayo brothers described Dr. Jackson as “the most able Negro surgeon in America” and that Dr. Jackson, a solid citizen, earned praise and admiration across racial lines. (Courtesy of the Greenwood Cultural Center.)
This May 1919 photograph shows soldiers in the Greenwood District. World War I began in Europe in 1914. The United States entered the conflict on April 6, 1917; the war ended in 1918. African American soldiers viewed the war as an opportunity to enhance their social, political, and economic standing in the United States after having fought for their country abroad. They would be sorely disappointed, as the first quarter of the 20th century proved particularly brutal for African Americans. Race riots, lynchings, and civil rights retrenchment proliferated. (Courtesy of the Greenwood Cultural Center.)
This c. 1920s photograph shows “Deep Greenwood,” the 100 block of Greenwood Avenue, looking northeast. All manner of businesses contributed to the vibrancy of this bustling black enclave: milliners, grocery stores, beauty parlors, tailors, movie houses, dance clubs, and more. Walter White noted: “The Negro in Oklahoma has shared in the sudden prosperity that has come to many of his white brothers, and there are some colored men there who are wealthy.” (Courtesy of the Greenwood Cultural Center.)
The Williams Dreamland Theater, photographed around 1920, was one of several businesses owned and operated by John and Loula Williams. Other enterprises included a rooming house, a confectionery, and a garage. (Photograph from the 1921 Booker T. Washington High School yearbook, courtesy of Rudisill Regional Library, Tulsa.)
This September 28, 1918, photograph from the Tulsa Star entitled “Tulsa Boys Who Are Called by the Government to Do Their Bit” shows a group of young men gathered at the Williams Dreamland Theater. The Dreamland provided proof of the sophistication of this African American community in the early 20th century. The theater showed live musical and theatrical revues as well as silent films. During the 1921 Tulsa Race Riot, Greenwood District residents gathered at Dreamland to plan a course of action. In the end, the riotous mob destroyed the Dreamland, together with most of the rest of the “Negro Wall Street.” (Courtesy of the Greenwood Cultural Center.)
This May 22, 1920, photograph from the Tulsa Star entitled “Visitors to the State Medical, Dental, and Pharmaceutical,” shows a group of professionals gathered at the Williams Dreamland Theater. (Courtesy of the Greenwood Cultural Center.)
The foreword from the 1921 Booker T. Washington High School yearbook reads, “Today the class of June, 1921, is one co-ordinate organization. Tomorrow it becomes eighteen seperate [sic] bits of individuality, swallowed up by the great outside life, and spread possibly to the four corners of the earth. For the memory of that organization, the four years spent at Booker Washington High School and the interests centered there, the excelsior of June ’21 is written—The Class.” (Photograph from the 1921 Booker T. Washington High School yearbook, courtesy of Rudisill Regional Library, Tulsa.)
Pictured from top to bottom, Annie L. Goodwin, John I. Claybon, and Mary M. Allison were all members of the graduating class of Booker T. Washington High School in 1921. The yearbook featured short poems to describe each student’s personality. The inscription accompanying Mary M. Allison’s photograph reads, “She has a smile that’s very sweet. / A kindlier girl you seldom meet.” (Photograph from the 1921 Booker T. Washington High School yearbook, courtesy of Rudisill Regional Library, Tulsa.)
Pearl McCrimmon, Reed Rollerson, and Amanda Robinson, pictured from top to bottom, were all graduates of Booker T. Washington High School’s class of 1921. Known for excellence and academic rigor, the high school produced a host of academic and athletic standouts over the course of decades. (Photograph from the 1921 Booker T. Washington High School yearbook, courtesy of Rudisill Regional Library, Tulsa.)
From top to bottom, Esther May Loupe, Phineas W. Thompson, and Celestine Z. Hodnett were members of the graduating class of Booker T. Washington High School in 1921. The poem accompanying Phineas W. Thompson’s class portrait reads, “His repartee and ready wit, have with the girls made quite a hit.” (Photograph from the 1921 Booker T. Washington High School yearbook, courtesy of Rudisill Regional Library, Tulsa.)
Pictured from top to bottom, Effie Hampton, Ora Lee Young, and Janniva Brown were graduates of Booker T. Washington High School. Next to Effie’s picture, a poem described her promise: “Though small of stature, yet large of heart, / We find in her a unique art, / Which cultured right may make her life full of success, joy and light.” (Photograph from the 1921 Booker T. Washington High School yearbook, courtesy of Rudisill Regional Library, Tulsa.)
Pictured from top to bottom, Dora Hogan, Bennie Tolbert, and Beatrice Johns, graduates of the 1921 class at Booker T. Washington High School. Next to Dora’s picture, a verse declares: “Enthusiastic, energetic, full of pep and life, She will surely make some one a very sweet wife.” (Photograph from the 1921 Booker T. Washington High School yearbook, courtesy of Rudisill Regional Library, Tulsa.)
Pictured from top to bottom, Irene Simpson, Edward Goodwin, and Beatrice Pratt were graduates of Booker T. Washington High School in 1921. A poem next to Beatrice’s class portrait described her demeanor by saying, “A very sunshiny young Miss is she, / Who’s always as happy as can be.” (Photograph from the 1921 Booker T. Washington High School yearbook, courtesy of Rudisill Regional Library, Tulsa.)
The featured ads from the 1921 Booker T. Washington High School yearbook illustrate the community’s involvement in and support of the local school. (Photograph from the 1921 Booker T. Washington High School yearbook, courtesy of Rudisill Regional Library, Tulsa.)
This image features ads from the 1921 Booker T. Washington High School yearbook. Community recognition of and support for the school has always been strong and continues to be so today. (Photograph from the 1921 Booker T. Washington High School yearbook, courtesy of Rudisill Regional Library, Tulsa.)
This is an undated photograph of Ellis Walker Woods, the famed principal of Tulsa’s Booker T. Washington High School. Woods’s 1
948 memorial services were held at the Tulsa convention center, one of the few venues large enough to accommodate the mourners who longed to say their last goodbye to E.W. Woods, fondly dubbed “the quintessential Tulsan” by local media. (Photograph courtesy of the Tulsa World.)
Two
RIOT
History, despite its wrenching pain, cannot be unlived, but if faced with courage, need not be lived again.
—Dr. Maya Angelou
In a 16-hour eruption of volcanic violence called the 1921 Tulsa Race Riot, marauding white hooligans set upon the Greenwood District. Planes circled about. While official reports cast the flyovers as mere reconnaissance missions, some eyewitnesses reported seeing the planes drop incendiary devices—bombs—on the already shell-shocked area.
The scorched earth assault on the Greenwood District left little unscathed: homes and businesses reduced to charred rubble; scores dead, dying, and wounded; and hundreds homeless and destitute. Some African Americans fled Tulsa, never to return. The riot remains the worst of the many instances of mass violence against African Americans that marred the national landscape in the early 20th century. The breadth and brutality of it all etched psychic scars still palpable today.