by Bruce Hood
42. T. Nagel, ‘What is it like to be a bat?’, Philosophical Review, 83 (1974), 433–50.
43. This anecdote is relayed by A. Gopnik, The Philosophical Baby: What Children’s Minds Tell Us About Truth, Love, and the Meaning of Life (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 2009).
2 The Machiavellian Baby
1. J. M. Baldwin, Development and Evolution (Boston, MA: Adamant Media Corporation, 1902/2002).
2. J. Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (London, 1690).
3. W. James, Principles of Psychology (New York, NY: Henry Holt, 1890).
4. A. Gopnik, ‘What are babies really thinking?’ http://blog.ted.com/2011/10/10/what-are-babies-really-thinking-alison-gopnik-on-ted-com/ (TED talk, 2011).
5. R. Byrne and A. Whiten, Machiavellian Intelligence (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988).
6. N. Kanwisher, J. McDermott, and M. Chun, ‘The fusiform face area: A module in human extrastriate cortex specialized for the perception of faces’, Journal of Neuroscience, 17 (1997), 4302–11. Actually, there is now some dispute whether the area is specific to faces or any special category of well-known objects. Given that faces are the most common diverse objects that we encounter, this suggests that the area probably evolved primarily for faces.
7. M. H. Johnson, S. Dziurawiec, H. Ellis and J. Morton, ‘Newborns’ preferential tracking for face-like stimuli and its subsequent decline’, Cognition, 40 (1991), 1–19.
8. O. Pascalis, M. de Haan and C. A. Nelson, ‘Is face processing species-specific during the first year of life?’, Science,296 (2002), 1321–23.
9. Y. Sugita, ‘Face perception in monkeys reared with no exposure to faces’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, USA, 105 (2008), 394–98.
10. R. Le Grand, C. Mondloch, D. Maurer and H. P. Brent, ‘Early visual experience and face processing’, Nature, 410 (2001), 890.
11. M. Heron-Delaney, G. Anzures, J. S. Herbert, P. C. Quinn and A. M. Slater, ‘Perceptual training prevents the emergence of the other race effect during Infancy’, PLoS ONE, 6:5 (2011): e19858, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0019858.
12. A. N. Meltzoff and M. K. Moore, ‘Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates’, Science, 198 (1977), 75–8.
13. P. F. Ferrari, E. Visalberghi, A. Paukner, L. Fogassi, A. Ruggiero and S. J. Suomi, ‘Neonatal imitation in rhesus macaques’, PLoS Biology, 4:9 (September 2006): e302, doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040302.
14. J. Panksepp, Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions (Series in Affective Science. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1998).
15. D. Leighton and C. Kluckhohn, Children of the People; the Navaho Individual and His Development (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1947/69).
16. A. B. Fries, T. E. Ziegler, J. R. Kurian, S. Jacoris and S. D. Pollack, ‘Early experience in humans is associated with changes in neuropeptides critical for regulating social interaction’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102 (2005), 17237–40.
17. F. Strack, L. L. Martin and S. Stepper, ‘Inhibiting and facilitating conditions of the human smile: A non-obtrusive test of the facial feedback hypothesis’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54 (1988), 768–77.
18. R.E. Kraut and R.E. Johnston, ‘Social and emotional messages of smiling: An ethological account’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(1979), 1539-53.
19. O. Epstein, G. D. Perkin and J. Cookson, Clinical Examination (Edinburgh: Elsevier Health Sciences, 2008), 408.
20. S. H. Fraiberg, ‘Blind infants and their mothers: An examination of the sign system’, in M. Lewis and L. Rosenblum (eds), The effect of the Infant on Its Caregiver (New York, NY: Wiley, 1974 pp. 215–232).
21. C. Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (London: John Murray, 1872).
22. V. Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning (New York, NY: Simon and Schuster, 1959), 54–6.
23. T. Anderson, Den of Lions (New York, NY: Ballantine Books, 1994).
24. R. R. Provine, Laughter: A Scientific Investigation (New York, NY: Penguin 2001).
25. J. Panksepp and J, Burgdorf, ‘“Laughing” rats and the evolutionary antecedents of human joy?’, Physiology and Behavior, 79 (2003), 533–47.
26. L. Weiskrantz, J. Elliott and C. Darlington, ‘Preliminary observations on tickling oneself’, Nature, 230 (1971), 598–9.
27. S. J. Blakemore, D. M. Wolpert and C. D. Frith, ‘Central cancellation of self-produced tickle sensation’, Nature Neuroscience, 1 (1990), 635–40.
28. S. J. Blakemore, D. M. Wolpert and C. D. Frith, ‘Why can’t you tickle yourself?’, NeuroReport, 11 (2000), R11–16.
29. J. M. S. Pearce, ‘Some neurological aspects of laughter’, European Neurology, 52 (2004), 169–71.
30. There is a vast literature on newborns’ preferences for their mothers. On smell: J. M. Cernack and R. H. Porter, ‘Recognition of maternal axillary odors by infants’, Child Development, 56 (1985), 1593–8. On face: I. M. Bushnell, F. Sai and J. T. Mullen, ‘Neonatal recognition of the mother’s face’, British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 7 (1989), 3–15. On voice: A. J. DeCasper and M. J. Spence, ‘Prenatal maternal speech influences newborns’ perception of speech sounds’, Infant Behavior and Development, 9 (1986), 133–50.
31. W. C. Roedell and R. G. Slaby, ‘The role of distal and proximal interaction in infant social preference formation’, Developmental Psychology, 13 (1977), 266–73.
32. C. Ellsworth, D. Muir and S. Han, ‘Social-competence and person-object differentiation: An analysis of the still-face effect’, Developmental Psychology, 29 (1993), 63–73.
33. L. Murray, A. Fiori-Cowley, R. Hooper and P. Cooper, ‘The impact of postnatal depression and associated adversity on early mother-infant interactions and later infant outcome’, Child Development, 67 (1996), 2512–26.
34. H. R. Schaffer, The Child’s Entry into a Social World (London: Academic Press, 1984).
35. M. Lewis, ‘Social development’, in A. M. Slater and M. Lewis (eds) (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007). This provides a good overview of early social development pp.233–252.
36. K. Lorenz, ‘Die Angebornen Formen mogicher Erfahrung’, Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie, 5 (1943), 233–409.
37. W. Fullard and A. M. Reiling, ‘An investigation of Lorenz’s babyness’, Child Development, 50 (1976), 915–22.
38. S. E. Taylor, The Tending Instinct (New York, NY: Henry Holt, 2001).
39. S. Levine, D. F. Johnson and C. A. Gonzalez, ‘Behavioral and hormonal responses to separation in infant rhesus monkeys and mothers, Behavioral Neuroscience, 99 (1985), 399–410.
40. M. C. Larson, M. R. Gunnar and L. Hertsgaard, ‘The effects of morning naps, car trips and maternal separation on adrenocortical activity in human infants’, Child Development, 62 (1991), 362–72.
41. P. S. Zeskind and B. M. Lester, ‘Analysis of infant crying’, in L. T, Singer and P. S. Zeskind (eds), Biobehavioral Assessment of the Infant (New York, NY: Guilford, 2001), 149–66.
42. Baby It’s You: The First Three Years, Emmy Award-winning series produced by Wall to Wall for UK’s Channel 4 (1994).
43. J. Bowlby, Attachment and Loss, Vol. 1 Attachment (London: Hogarth Press 1969).
44. R. A. Spitz, ‘Motherless infants’, Child Development, 20 (1949),145–55.
45. M. D. S. Ainsworth, ‘Infancy in Uganda: Infant care and the growth of love’, (Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press, 1967).
46. M. D. S. Ainsworth, M. C. Blehar, E. Waters and S. Wall, Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbuam, 1978).
47. M. H. van IJzendoorn and P. M. Kroonenberg, ‘Cross-cultural patterns of attachment: A meta-analysis of the strange situation’, Child Development, 59 (1988), 147–56.
48. J. Kagan, ‘Temperament and the reactions to unfamiliarity’, Child Development, 68 (1997), 139–43.
49. C. Hazan and P.
Shaver, ‘Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52 (1987), 511–24.
50. J. A. Simpson, ‘Influence of attachment style on romantic relationships’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59 (1990), 971–80.
51. H. Lane, The Wild Boy of Aveyron (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979).
52. J. M. G. Itard, An Historical Account of the Discovery and Education of a Savage Man or of the First Developments, Physical and Moral of the Young Savage Caught in the Woods Near Aveyron in the Year 1798 (London: Richard Phillips, 1802), 17.
53. G. Bremner, Infancy (2nd ed., Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2004), 2.
54. P. E. Jones , ‘Contradictions and unanswered questions in the Genie case: A fresh look at the linguistic evidence’, Language and Communication, 15 (1995), 261–80.
55. U. Firth, Autism: Explaining the Enigma (2nd ed., Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2003).
56. Alvin Powell, interview with Chuck Nelson, ‘Breathtakingly awful’, Harvard Gazette (5 October 2010).
57. D. E. Johnson, D. Guthrie, A. T. Smyke, S. F. Koga, N. A. Fox, C. H. Zeanah and C. A. Nelson, ‘Growth and associations between auxology, caregiving environment, and cognition in socially deprived Romanian children randomized to foster vs ongoing institutional care’, Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 164 (2010), 507–516.
58. M. Rutter, T. G. O’Connor and the English and Romanian Adoptees (ERA) Study Team, ‘Are there biological programming effects for psychological development? Findings from a study of Romanian adoptees’, Developmental Psychology, 40 (2004), 81–94.
59. H. F. Harlow and M. L. Harlow, ‘The affectional systems’, in A. M. Schrier, H. F. Harlow and F. Stollnitz (eds), Behavior of Nonhuman Primates, vol. 2 (New York, NY: Academic Press, 1965).
60. T. Field, M. Hernandez-Reif and J. Freedman, ‘Stimulation programs for preterm infants’, Social Policy Report, 18 (2004), 1–19.
61. D. O. Hebb, ‘The effects of early experience on problem solving at maturity’, American Psychologist, 2 (1947), 306–7.
62. J. T. Cacioppo, J. H. Fowler and N. A. Christakis, ‘Alone in the crowd: The structure and spread of loneliness in a large social network’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97 (2009), 977–91.
63. H. Ruan and C. F. Wu, ‘Social interaction-mediated lifespan extension of Drosophila Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase mutants’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105: 21 (2008), 7506–10.
64. R. S. Kempe and C. H. Kempe, Child Abuse (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978).
65. D. G. Dutton and S. Painter, ‘Emotional attachments in abusive relationships. A test of traumatic bonding’, Violence and Victims, 8 (1993), 105–120.
66. G. A. Morgan and H. N. Ricciuti, ‘Infants’ responses to strangers during the first year’, in B. M. Foss (ed.), Determinants of Infant Behaviour, vol. 4 (London: Methuen, 1967).
67. A. N. Meltzoff, P. K. Kuhl, J. Movellan and T. J. Sejnowski, ‘Foundations for a new science of learning’, Science, 325 (2009), 284–8.
68. A. N. Meltzoff, ‘Infant imitation and memory: Nine-month-olds in immediate and deferred tests’, Child Development, 59 (1988), 217–25.
69. G. Gergely, H. Bekkering and I. Király, ‘Rational imitation of goal directed actions in preverbal infants’, Nature, 415 (2002), 755.
70. A. N. Meltzoff and R. Brooks, ‘Self-experience as a mechanism for learning about others: A training study in social cognition’, Developmental Psychology, 44 (2008), 1257–65.
71. S. Itakura, H. Ishida, T. Kanda, Y. Shimada, H. Ishiguro and K. Lee, ‘How to build an intentional android: Infants’ imitation of a robot’s goal-directed actions’, Infancy, 13 (2008), 519–32.
72. V. Gallese, L. Fadiga, L. Fogassi and G. Rizzolatti, ‘Action recognition in the premotor cortex’, Brain, 119 (1996), 593–609.
73. V. Gallese, M. A. Gernsbacher, C. Heyes, G. Hickok and M. Iacoboni, ‘Mirror Neuron Forum’, Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6 (2011), 369–407.
74. This claim was made by the eminent neuroscientist Vilayanur Ramachandran and is related in C. Keysers, The Empathic Brain (Los Gatos, CA: Smashwords e-book, 2011).
75. D. T. Neal and T. L. Chartrand, ‘Embodied emotion perception: Amplifying and dampening facial feedback modulates emotion perception accuracy’, Social Psychological and Personality Science (2011): doi:10.1177/1948550611406138.
76. S.-J. Blakemore, D. Bristow, G. Bird, C. Frith and J. Ward, ‘Somatosensory activations during the observation of touch and a case of vision-touch synaesthesia’, Brain, 128 (2005), 1571–83.
77. J. Ward, The Frog Who Croaked Blue: Synesthesia and the Mixing of the Senses (London: Routledge, 2008).
78. M. J. Richardson, K. L. Marsh, R. W. Isenhower, J. R. L. Goodman and R. C. Schmidt, ‘Rocking together: Dynamics of intentional and un-intentional interpersonal coordination’, Human Movement Science, 26 (2007), 867–91.
79. M. S. Helt, I.-M. Eigsti, P. J. Snyder and D. A. Fein, ‘Contagious yawning in autistic and typical development’, Child Development, 81 (2010), 1620–31.
80. T. J. Cox, ‘Scraping sounds and disgusting noises’, Applied Acoustics, 69 (2008), 1195–1204.
81. O. Sacks, The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat (New York, NY: Harper Perennial, 1987), 123.
3 The Looking Glass Self
1. C. H. Cooley, Human Nature and the Social Order (New York, NY: Scribner’s, 1902).
2. N. Breen, D. Caine and M. Coltheart, ‘Mirrored-self misidentification: Two cases of focal onset dementia’, Neurocase, 7 (2001), 239–54.
3. J. Cotard, Etudes sur les Maladies Cerebrales et Mentales (Paris: Bailliere, 1891).
4. E. C. M. Hunter, M. Sierra and A. S. David, ‘The epidemiology of depersonalisation and derealisation: A systematic review, Social Psychiatry Psychiatric Epidemiology, 39 (2004), 9–18.
5. A. J. Barnier, R. E. Cox, M. Connors, R. Langdon and M. Coltheart, ‘A stranger in the looking glass: Developing and challenging a hypnotic mirrored-self misidentification delusion’, International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 59 (2011), 1–26.
6. G. B. Caputo, ‘Strange-face-in-the-mirror illusion’, Perception, 39 (2010), 1007–8.
7. G. G. Gallup, ‘Chimpanzees: Self-recognition’, Science, 167 (1970), 86–7.
8. B. I. Bertenthal and K. W. Fischer, ‘Development of self-recognition in the infant’, Developmental Psychology, 14 (1978), 44–50.
9. P. Rochat, Others in Mind: Social Origins of Self-Consciousness (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009).
10. D. Bruce, A. Dolan and K. Phillips-Grant, ‘On the transition from childhood amnesia to the recall of personal memories’, Psychological Science,11 (2000),360–64.
11. M. J. Eacott, ‘Memory for the events of early childhood’, Current Directions in Psychological Sciences, 8 (1999), 46–9.
12. D. Wearing, Forever Today: A Memoir of Love and Amnesia (London: Doubleday, 2005).
13. Wearing (2005), 158.
14. J. Piaget, The Child’s Construction of Reality (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955).
15. C. Rovee and D. T. Rovee, ‘Conjugate reinforcement of infant exploratory behavior’, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 8 (1969), 33–9.
16. D. B. Mitchell, ‘Nonconscious priming after 17 years: Invulnerable implicit memory?’, Psychological Science, 17 (2006), 925–9.
17. E. Tulving, Elements of Episodic Memory (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983).
18. M. A. Conway and C. W. Pleydell-Pearce, ‘The construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system’, Psychological Review, 107 (2000), 261–88.
19. H. L. Roediger III and K. B. McDermott, ‘Tricks of memory’, Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9 (2000), 123–7.
20. F. C. Bartlett, Remembering (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1932).
21. E. F. Loftus, ‘Leading questions and eyewitness re
port’, Cognitive Psychology, 7 (1975), 560–72.
22. E. F. Loftus, ‘Lost in the mall: Misrepresentations and misunderstandings’, Ethics and Behaviour, 9 (1999), 51–60.
23. The story of Piaget’s false memory can be found in C. Tavris, ‘Hysteria and the incest-survivor machine’, Sacramento Bee, Forum section (17 January 1993).
24. K. A. Wade, M. Garry, J. D. Read and D. S. Lindsay, ‘A picture is worth a thousand lies: Using false photographs to create false childhood memories’, Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 9 (2002), 597–603.
25. Loftus’s recollection of this incident is found in J. Neimark, ‘The diva of disclosure, memory researcher Elizabeth Loftus’, Psychology Today, 29 (1996), 48.
26. D. J. Simons and C. F. Chabris, ‘What people believe about how memory works: A representative survey of the US population’, PLoS ONE, 6: 8 (2011): e22757, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0022757.
27. W. L. Randall, ‘From compost to computer: Rethinking our metaphors for memory’, Theory Psychology, 17 (2007), 611–33.
28. Simons, quoted in K. Harmon, ‘4 things most people get wrong about memory’, Scientific American (4 August 2011), http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/2011/08/04/4-things-most-people-get-wrong-about-memory.
29. P. K. Dick, ‘We can remember it for you wholesale’, Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction (April 1966).
30. Total Recall (1990), directed by Paul Verhoeven.
31. K. Tustin and H. Hayne, ‘Defining the boundary: Age-related changes in childhood amnesia’, Developmental Psychology, 46 (2010), 1049–61.
32. M. L. Howe and M. L. Courage, ‘On resolving the enigma of infantile amnesia’, Psychological Bulletin, 113 (1993), 305–326.
33. Rochat (2009).
34. D. Premack and G. Woodruff, ‘Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind?’, Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1 (1978), 515–26.
35. The story of Binti is told in S. Budiansky, ‘Still red tooth and claw’, Wall Street Journal (12 March 1978).
36. Studies of gaze following indicate that this is present early and may even be innate. See, for example, B. M. Hood, J. D. Willen and J. Driver, ‘An eye direction detector triggers shifts of visual attention in human infants’, Psychological Science, 9 (1998), 53–6.