by Bruce Hood
37. A. Phillips, H. M. Wellman and E. S. Spelke, ‘Infants’ ability to connect gaze and emotional expression to intentional action’, Cognition, 85 (2002), 53–78.
38. B. M. Repacholi and A. Gopnik, ‘Early reasoning about desires: Evidence from 14- and 18-month-olds’, Developmental Psychology, 33 (1997), 12–21.
39. D. J. Povinelli and T. J. Eddy, What Chimpanzees Know about Seeing, Monographs of the Society of Research in Child Development 61:2:247 (Boston, MA: Blackwell, 1996).
40. D. Dennett, ‘Beliefs about beliefs’, Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1 (1978), 568–70.
41. A. Gopnik and J. W. Astington, ‘Children’s understanding of representational change and its relation to the understanding of false belief and the appearance reality distinction’, Child Development, 59 (1988), 26–37.
42. H. Wimmer and J. Perner, ‘Beliefs about beliefs: Representations and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children’s understanding of deception’, Cognition, 13 (1983), 103–128.
43. A. Gopnik (2009) The Philosophical Baby; What Children’s Minds Tell us About Truth, Love, and the Meaning of Life. Farrar, Straw & Gironx, NY.
44. A. McAlister and C. Peterson, ‘A longitudinal study of child siblings and theory of mind development’, Cognitive Development, 22 (2007), 258–70.
45. C. Keysers, The Empathic Brain (Los Gatos, CA: Smashwords e-book, 2011).
46. C. J. Newschaffer, L. A. Croen and J. Daniels et al., ‘The epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders’, Annual Review of Public Health, 28 (2007), 235–58.
47. U. Frith, Autism: Explaining the Enigma (2nd ed., Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2003).
48. S. Baron-Cohen, Mindblindness: An Essay on Autism and Theory of Mind (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995).
49. A. Gopnik, ‘Mindblindness’ (Unpublished essay. Berkeley, CA: University of California, 1993).
50. M. S. Helt, I. Eigsti, P. J. Snyder and D. A. Fein, ‘Contagious yawning in autistic and typical development’, Child Development, 81 (2010), 1620–31.
51. T. Grandin, The Way I See It (2nd ed., Arlington, TX: Future Horizons, 2011).
52. O. Sacks, An Anthropologist on Mars: Seven Paradoxical Tales (New York, NY: Vintage, 1996).
53. A. Bailey, A. Le Couteur, I. Gottesman, P. Bolton, E. Simonoff, E. Yuzda and M. Rutter, ‘Autism as a strongly genetic disorder: Evidence from a British twin study’, Psychological Medicine, 25 (1995), 63–77.
54. J. H. Pfeifer, M. Iacoboni, J. C. Mazziotta and M. Dapretto, ‘Mirroring others’ emotions relates to empathy and interpersonal competence in children’, Neuroimage,15 (2008), 2076–85; M. Dapretto, M. S. Davies, J. H. Pfeifer, M. Sigman, M. Iacoboni, S. Y. Bookheimer et al., ‘Understanding emotions in others: Mirror neuron dysfunction in children with autism spectrum disorders’, Nature Neuroscience, 9 (2006), 28–30.
55. J. A. Bastiaansen, M. Thioux, L. Nanetti, C. van der Gaag, C. Ketelaars, R. Minderaa and C. Keysers, ‘Age-related increase in inferior frontal gyrus activity and social functioning in autism spectrum disorder’, Biological Psychiatry, 69 (2011), 832–8.
56. J. M. Allman, K. K. Watson, N. A. Tetreault and A. Y. Hakeem, ‘Intuition and autism: A possible role for Von Economo neurons’, Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9 (2005), 367–73.
57. A. L. Beaman, E. Diener and B. Klentz, ‘Self-awareness and transgression in children: Two field studies’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37 (1979), 1835–46.
58. D. Elkind, ‘Egocentrism in adolescence’, Child Development, 38 (1967), 1025–34.
59. S.-J. Blakemore, ‘The social brain in adolescence’, Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9 (2008), 267–77.
60. J. Pfeifer, M. Lieberman and M. Dapretto, ‘“I know you are but what am I?”: Neural bases of self and social knowledge retrieval in children and adults’, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19:8 (2007), 1323–37.
61. S.-J. Blakemore, H. den Ouden, S. Choudhury and C. Frith, ‘Adolescent development of the neural circuitry for thinking about intentions’, Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 2:2 (2007), 130–39.
62. S. Burnett, G. Bird, J. Moll, C. Frith and S.-J. Blakemore, ‘Development during adolescence of the neural processing of social emotion’, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21:9 (2009), 1736–50.
63. L. Steinberg, ‘A neurobehavioral perspective on adolescent risk taking’, Developmental Review, 28 (2008), 78–106.
64. The story of Storm can be found at J. Poisson, ‘Parents keep child’s gender secret’, Star (21 May 2011), www.thestar.com/article/995112.
65. E. E. Maccoby, The Two Sexes: Growing Up Apart, Coming Together (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1998).
66. C. L. Martin and D. Ruble, ‘Children’s search for gender cues: Cognitive perspectives on gender development’, Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13 (2004), 67–70.
67. A. S. Rossi, ‘A biosocial perspective on parenting’, Daedalus, 106 (1977), 1–31.
68. J. Condry and S. Condry, ‘Sex differences: A study of the eye of the beholder’, Child Development, 47 (1976), 812–19.
69. C. Smith and B. Lloyd, ‘Maternal behavior and perceived sex of infant: Revisited’, Child Development, 49 (1978), 1263–5.
70. D. Fisher-Thompson, ‘Adult toy purchase for children: Factors affecting sex-typed toy selection’, Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 14 (1993), 385–406.
71. J. L. R. Delk, R. B. Madden, M. Livingston and T. T. Ryan, ‘Adult perceptions of the infant as a function of gender labeling and observer gender’, Sex Roles, 15 (1986), 527–34.
72. A. Pomerleau, D. Bolduc, G. Malcuit and L. Cossette, ‘Pink or blue: Environmental gender stereotypes in the first two years of life’, Sex Roles, 22 (1990), 359–67.
73. S. K. Thompson, ‘Gender labels and early sex-role development’, Child Development, 46 (1975), 339–47.
74. S. A. Gelman, M. G. Taylor and S. P. Nguyen, Mother-child Conversations about Gender, Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 69:1:275 (Boston, MA: Blackwell, 2004).
75. J. Dunn, I. Bretherton and P. Munn, ‘Conversations about feeling states between mothers and their young children’, Developmental Psychology, 23 (1987), 132–9.
76. K. Crowley, M. A. Callanan, H. R. Tenenbaum and E. Allen, ‘Parents explain more often to boys than to girls during shared scientific thinking’, Psychological Science, 12 (2001), 258–61.
77. M. Sadker and D. Sadker, Failing at Fairness: How America’s Schools Cheat Girls (New York, NY: Scribner’s, 1994).
78. K. C. Kling, J. S. Hyde, C. J. Showers and B. N. Buswell, ‘Gender differences in self-esteem: A meta-analysis’, Psychological Bulletin, 125 (1999), 470–500.
79. D. F. Halpern, ‘A cognitive-process taxonomy for sex differences in cognitive abilities’, Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13 (2004), 135–9.
80. R. L. Munro, R. Hulefeld, J. M. Rodgers, D. L. Tomeo and S. K. Yamazaki, ‘Aggression among children in four cultures’, Cross-Cultural Research, 34 (2000), 3–25.
81. T. R. Nansel, M. Overpeck, R. S. Pilla, W. J. Ruan, B. Simons-Morton and P. Scheidt, ‘Bullying behaviors among US youth: Prevalence and association with psychosocial adjustment’, Journal of the American Medical Association, 285 (2001), 2094–2100.
82. P. A. Jacobs, M. Brunton, M. M. Melville, R. P. Brittain and W. F. McClemont, ‘Aggressive behaviour, mental sub-normality and the XYY male’, Nature, 208 (1965), 1351–2.
83. M. C. Brown, ‘Males with an XYY sex chromosome complement’, Journal of Medical Genetics, 5 (1968), 341–59.
84. H. A. Witkin et al., ‘Criminality in XYY and XXY men’, Science, 193 (1976), 547–55.
85. A. Caspi, J. McClay, T. E. Moffitt, J. Mill, J. Martin, I. W. Craig, A. Taylor and R. Poulton, ‘Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children’, Science, 297 (2002), 851–4.
86. E. Yong, ‘Dangerous DNA: The truth about the “warrior gene”’, New Scientist (7 April 2010).
87. G. Naik, ‘What’s
on Jim Fallon’s mind? A family secret that has been murder to figure out’, Wall Street Journal (30 November 2009).
88. Interview with Jim Fallon by Claudia Hammond for All in the Mind, BBC Radio 4 (26 April 2011).
89. B. D. Perry, ‘Incubated in terror: Neurodevelopmental factors in the “Cycle of Violence”’, in J. Osofsky (ed.), Children, Youth and Violence: The Search for Solutions (New York, NY: Guilford Press, 1997), 124–48.
90. W. Mischel, Personality and Assessment (New York, NY: Wiley, 1968).
91. W. Mischel, Y. Shoda and M. L. Rodriguez, ‘Delay of gratification in children’, Science, 244 (1989), 933–8.
92. Y. Shoda, W. Mischel and P. K. Peake, ‘Predicting adolescent cognitive and social competence from preschool delay of gratification: Identifying diagnostic conditions’, Developmental Psychology, 26 (1990), 978–86; W. Mischel and O. Ayduk, ‘Willpower in a cognitive-affective processing system: The dynamics of delay of gratification’, in R. F. Baumeister and K. D. Vohs (eds), Handbook of Self-Regulation: Research, Theory, and Applications (New York, NY: Guilford, 2004), 99–129.
93. P. H. Wender, ADHD: Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adults (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002).
94. M. Strock, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (London: National Institute of Mental Health, 1996), available at http://web.archive.org/web/20080916130703/http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/ publications/adhd/nimhadhdpub.pdf.
95. G. Kochanska, K. C. Coy and K. T. Murray, ‘The development of self-regulation in the first four years of life’, Child Development, 72 (2001), 1091–1111.
96. D. Parfit, Reason and Persons (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986).
97. S. Gelman, The Essential Child: Origins of Essentialism in Everyday Thought (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).
98. P. Bloom, How Pleasure Works: The New Science of Why We Like What We Like (New York, NY: W. W. Norton and Company, 2010).
4 The Cost of Free Will
1. G. M. Lavergne, A Sniper in the Tower: The Charles Whitman Murders (Denton, TX: University of North Texas Press, 1997).
2. J. M. Burns and R. H. Swerdlow, ‘Right orbitofrontal tumor with pedophilia symptom and constructional apraxia sign’, Archives of Neurology, 60 (2003), 437–40.
3. D. M. Eagleman, Incognito: The Secret Lives of the Brain (Edinburgh: Canongate, 2011).
4. N. Levy, Neuroethics: Challenges for the 21st Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).
5. B. de Spinoza, A Spinoza Reader: The Ethics and Other Works, ed. and trans. E. Curley (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994).
6. Dennett is quoted in E. Taylor, Mind Programming: From Persuasion and Brainwashing, to Self-Help and Practical Metaphysics (San Diego, CA: Hay House, 2009).
7. E. R. Macagno, V. Lopresti and C. Levinthal, ‘Structure and development of neuronal connections in isogenic organisms: Variations and similarities in the optic system of Daphnia magna’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 70 (1973), 57–61.
8. H. Putnam, ‘Psychological predicates’, in W. H. Capitan and D. D. Merrill (eds), Art, Mind, and Religion (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1967), 37–48.
9. This example comes from Gazzaniga’s Gifford lecture where he introduced the work of neurophysiologist Eve Marder to demonstrate the principle of Putnam’s multiple realizability; J. M. Goaillard, A. L. Taylor, D. J. Schulz and E. Marder, ‘Functional consequences of animal-to-animal variation in circuit parameters’, Nature. Neuroscience, 12 (2009), 1424–30.
10. B. Libet, C. Gleason, E. Wright and D. Pearal, ‘Time of unconscious intention to act in relation to onset of cerebral activity (readiness-potential)’, Brain, 106 (1983), 623–42.
11. C. S. Soon, M. Brass, H.-J. Heinze and J.-D. Haynes, ‘Unconscious determinants of free decisions in the human brain’, Nature Neuroscience, 11 (2008), 543–5.
12. G. Ryle, The Concept of Mind (London: Peregrine, 1949), 186–9.
13. F. Assal, S. Schwartz and P. Vuilleumier, ‘Moving with or without will: Functional neural correlates of alien hand syndrome’, Annals of Neurology, 62 (2007), 301–6.
14. See M. S. Gazzaniga, ‘Forty-five years of split-brain research and still going strong’, Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 6:8 (August 2005), 653–9, for Gazzaniga’s reflection of his work in split-brain research.
15. F. Lhermitte, ‘Human autonomy and the frontal lobes. Part II: Patient behavior in complex and social situations: The “environmental dependency syndrome”’, Annals of Neurology, 19 (1986), 335–43.
16. F. Lhermitte, ‘“Utilization behaviour” and its relation to lesions of the frontal lobes’, Brain, 106 (1983), 237–55.
17. D. Wegner, The Illusion of Conscious Will (Cambridge, MA: MIT, 2002).
18. D. Wegner, ‘Self is magic’, in J. C. Kaufman and R. F. Baumeister (eds), Are We Free? Psychology and Free Will (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2008).
19. J. Cloutier and C. N. Macrae, ‘The feeling of choosing: Self-involvement and the cognitive status of things past’, Consciousness and Cognition, 17 (2008), 125–35.
20. L. M. Goff and H. L. Roediger III, ‘Imagination inflation for action events: Repeated imaginings lead to illusory recollections’, Memory and Cognition, 26 (1998), 20–33.
21. L. Lindner, G. Echerhoff, P. S. R. Davidson and M. Brand, ‘Observation inflation: Your actions become mine’, Psychological Science, 21 (2010), 1291–9.
22. E. R. Hilgard, Hypnotic Suggestibility (New York, NY: Harcout Brace and World, 1965).
23. Hilgard (1965).
24. P. Rainville, R. K. Hofbauer, T. Paus, G. H. Duncan, M. C. Bushnell and D. D. Price, ‘Cerebral mechanisms of hypnotic induction and suggestion’, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 11 (1999), 110–122.
25. T. R. Sarbin, ‘Contributions to role-taking. I. Hypnotic behavior’, Psychological Review, 57 (1950), 255–70.
26. S. Vyse, Believing in Magic: The Psychology of Superstition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997).
27. K. Ono, ‘Superstitious behavior in humans’, Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 47 (1987), 261–71.
28. Daily Mail (27 January 2009).
29. B. Malinowski, ‘Fishing in the Trobriand Islands’, Man, 18 (1918), 87–92.
30. S. S. Dickerson and M. E. Kemeny, ‘Acute stressors and cortisol responses: A theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research’, Psychological Bulletin, 130 (2004), 355–91.
31. G. Keinan, ‘The effects of stress and desire for control on superstitious behavior’, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28 (2002), 102–8.
32. Independent (9 April 2007).
33. The primatologist Josep Call told the author about this phenomenon.
34. M. M. Robertson and A. E. Cavanna, ‘The disaster was my fault’, Neurocase, 13 (2007), 446–51.
35. I. Osborn, Tormenting Thoughts and Secret Rituals: The Hidden Epidemic of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (New York, NY: Dell, 1998).
36. T. E. Oltmanns, J. M. Neale and G. C. Davison, Case Studies in Abnormal Psychology (3rd ed., New York, NY: Wiley, 1991).
37. A. M. Graybiel and S. L. Rauch, ‘Toward a neurobiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder’, Neuron, 28 (2000), 343–7.
38. M. Field, ‘Impulsivity, restraint and ego depletion in heavy drinkers’, Presentation at the Bristol Psychopharmacology Research Network: Workshop 3, Bristol Institute for Advanced Studies (1 December 2010).
39. N. L. Mead, J. L. Alquist and R. F. Baumeister, ‘Ego depletion and the limited resource model of self-control’, in R. R. Hassin, K. N. Ochsner and Y. Trope (eds), Self Control in Society, Mind and Brain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 375–88.
40. R. F. Baumeister, The Self in Social Psychology (Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press, 1999).
41. M. Muraven and R. F. Baumeister, ‘Self-regulation and depletion of limited resources: Does self-control resemble a muscle?’, Psychological Bullet
in, 126 (2000), 247–59.
42. J. Rotton, ‘Affective and cognitive consequences of malodorous pollution’, Basic Applied Social Psychology, 4 (1983), 171–91; B. J. Schmeichel, K. D. Vohs and R. F. Baumeister, ‘Intellectual performance and ego depletion: Role of the self in logical reasoning and other information processing’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85 (2003), 33–46; G. W. Evans, ‘Behavioral and physiological consequences of crowding in humans’, Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 9 (1969), 27–49; D. C. Glass and J. E. Singer, Urban Stress: Experiments on Noise and Social Stressors (New York, NY: Academic Press, 1972).
43. D. Kahan, J. Polivy and C. P. Herman, ‘Conformity and dietary disinhibition: A test of the ego-strength model of self control’, International Journal of Eating Disorders, 32 (2003), 165–71; M. Muraven, R. L. Collins and K. Neinhaus, ‘Self-control and alcohol restraint: An initial application of the self-control strength model’, Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 16 (2002), 113–120; K. D. Vohs, R. F. Baumeister, B. J. Schmeichel, J. M. Twenge, N. M. Nelson and D. Tice, ‘Mating choices impairs subsequent self-control: A limited resource account of decision making, self-regulation, and active initiative’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94 (2008), 883–98.
44. K. D. Vohs, R. F. Baumeister and N. J. Ciarocco, ‘Self-regulation and self-presentation: Regulatory resource depletion impairs impression management and effortful self-presentation depletes regulatory resources’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88 (2005), 632–57.
45. N. J. Ciarocco, K. Sommer and R. F. Baumeister, ‘Ostracism and ego depletion: The strains of silence’, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27 (2001), 1156–63.
46. M. T. Gailliot, R. F. Baumeister, C. N. DeWall, J. K. Maner, E. A . Plant, D. M. Tice, L. E. Brewer and B. J. Schmeichel, ‘Self-control relies on glucose as a limited energy source: Willpower is more than a metaphor’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92 (2007), 325–36.
47. I. W. Hung and A. A. Labroo, ‘From firm muscles to firm willpower: Understanding the role of embodied cognition in self-regulation’, Journal of Consumer Research, 37 (2011), 1046–64.