by Bruce Hood
48. D. R. Carney, A. J. C. Cuddy and A. J. Yap, ‘Power posing: Brief nonverbal displays affect neuroendocrine levels and risk tolerance’, Psychological Science, 21 (2010), 1363–8.
49. L. W. Barsalou, ‘Grounded cognition’, Annual Review of Psychology, 59:1 (2008), 617–45.
50. M. Tuk, D. Trampe and L. Warlop, ‘Inhibitory spillover: Increased urination urgency facilitates impulse control in unrelated domains’, Psychological Science, 22 (2011), 627–33.
51. J. Baggini, The Ego Trick (London: Granta, 2011).
52. H. Rachlin, ‘Teleological behaviorism and the problem of self-control’, in R. R. Hassin, K. N. Ochsner and Y. Trope (eds), Self Control in Society, Mind, and Brain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 506–521.
53. V. Job, C. S. Dweck and G .M. Walton, ‘Ego depletion—is it all in your head? Implicit theories about willpower affect self-regulation’, Psychological Science, 21 (2010), 1686–93.
54. C. M. Mueller and C. S. Dweck, ‘Intelligence praise can undermine motivation and performance’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75 (1998), 33–52.
55. K. D. Vohs and J. W. Schooler, ‘The value of believing in free will: Encouraging a belief in determinism increases cheating’, Psychological Science, 19 (2008), 49–54.
56. T. F. Stillman, R. F. Baumeister, K. D. Vohs, N. M. Lambert, F. D. Fincham and L. E. Brewer, ‘Personal philosophy and personnel achievement: Belief in free will predicts better job performance’, Social Psychological and Personality Science, 1 (2010), 43–50.
5 Why Our Choices Are Not Our Own
1. F. Presbrey, ‘1855–1936. The history and development of advertising’, Advertising and Society Review, 1:1 (2000).
2. The phrase ‘subliminal advertising’ was coined in 1957 by the US market researcher James Vicary, who said he could get moviegoers to ‘drink Coca-Cola’ and ‘eat popcorn’ by flashing those messages onscreen for such a short time that viewers were unaware. Vicary later admitted he had fabricated his results.
3. J. N. Axelrod, ‘Advertising measures that predict purchase’, Journal of Advertising Research, 8 (1968), 3–17.
4. Both von Helmholtz and Freud wrote about the unconscious processes that shape our behaviours: H. von Helmholtz, ‘Concerning the perceptions in general’, in Treatise on Physiological Optics, vol. III, trans J. P. C. Southall (New York, NY: Dover, 1925/1962); S. Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams, trans. A. A. Brill (New York, NY: Macmillan, 1913).
5. P. Johansson, L. Hall, S. Sikström and A. Olsson, ‘Failure to detect mismatches between intention and outcome in a simple decision task’, Science, 310:5745 (2005), 116–119.
6. L. Hall, P. Johansson, B. Tärning, S. Sikström and T. Deutgen, ‘Magic at the marketplace: Choice blindness for the taste of jam and the smell of tea’, Cognition, 117 (2010), 54–61.
7. S. Pinker, The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature (New York, NY: Viking, 2002).
8. L. Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1957).
9. V. V. Bapeswara Rao and M. Bhaskara Rao, ‘A three-door game show and some of its variants’, Mathematical Scientist, 17 (1992), 89–94.
10. E. Langer, ‘The illusion of control’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32 (1975), 311–28.
11. D. Salsburg, The Lady Tasting Tea: How Statistics Revolutionized Science in the Twentieth Century (New York, NY: Holt, 2002).
12. G. Gigerenzer, Reckoning with Risk (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 2003).
13. G. Gigerenzer, ‘Dread risk, September 11, and fatal traffic accidents’, Psychological Science, 15 (2004), 286–7.
14. M. E. P. Seligman and S. F. Maier, ‘Failure to escape traumatic shock’, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74 (1967), 1–9.
15. M. E. P. Seligman, Helplessness: On Depression, Development, and Death (San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman, 1975).
16. G. W. Brown and T. Harris, Social Origins of Depression (New York, NY: Free Press, 1978).
17. S. F. Maier and L. R. Watkins, ‘Stressor controllability, anxiety and serotonin’, Cognitive Therapy Research, 22 (1998), 595–613.
18. T. V. Salomons, T. Johnstone, M.-M. Backonja and R. J. Davidson, ‘Perceived controllability modulates the neural response to pain’, Journal of Neuroscience, 24 (2004), 7199–203.
19. S. Botti and A. L. McGill, ‘The locus of choice: Personal causality and satisfaction with hedonic and utilitarian decisions’, Journal of Consumer Research, 37 (2011), 1065–78.
20. B. Schwartz, The Paradox of Choice: Why More is Less (London: Harper Collins, 2005).
21. D. Ariely, Predictably Irrational (New York, NY: Harper, 2008).
22. D. Kahneman, ‘The riddle of experience vs money’, TED Talk (February 2010), TED website, www.ted.com/talks/daniel_kahneman_the_riddle_of_ experience_vs_memory.html.
23. D. A. Redelmeier, J. Katz and D. Kahneman, ‘Memories of colonoscopy: A randomized trial’, Pain, 104 (2003), 187–94.
24. D. Ariely and G. Loewenstein, ‘The heat of moment: The effect of sexual arousal on sexual decision making’, Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 19 (2006), 87–98.
25. W. James, Principles of Psychology (New York, NY: Henry Holt, 1890).
26. P. Kanngiesser, N. L. Gjersoe and B. M. Hood, ‘The effect of creative labor on property-ownership transfer by preschool children and adults’, Psychological Science, 21 (2010), 1236–41.
27. B. M. Hood and P. Bloom, ‘Children prefer certain individuals to perfect duplicates’, Cognition, 106 (2008), 455–62.
28. B. M. Hood, K. Donnelly, U. Leonards and P. Bloom, ‘Implicit voodoo: Electrodermal activity reveals a susceptibility to sympathetic magic’, Journal of Culture and Cognition, 10 (2010), 391–9.
29. D. J. Turk, K. van Bussel, G. D. Waiter, C. N. Macrae, ‘Mine and me: Exploring the neural basis of object ownership’, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 23 (2011), 3657–3668.
30. S. J. Cunningham, D. J. Turk and C. N. Macrae, ‘Yours or mine? Ownership and memory’, Consciousness and Cognition, 17 (2008), 312–18.
31. ‘Settlement reached over Auschwitz suitcase’, Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial and Museum website (June 2009), http://en.auschwitz.org.pl/m/index.php?option=com_contentandtask=viewandid=630andItemid=8.
32. M. Carroll, ‘“Junk” collections among mentally retarded patients’, American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 73 (1968), 308–314.
33. P. Sherwell, ‘Hoarder killed by collapsing clutter’, Daily Telegraph (22 January 2006).
34. R. W. Belk, ‘Possession and the extended self’, Journal of Consumer Research, 15 (1988), 139–68.
35. R. Thaler, ‘Toward a positive theory of consumer choice’, Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 1 (1980), 39–60.
36. D. Kahneman, J. L. Knetsch, R. H. Thaler, ‘Anomalies: The endowment effect, loss aversion and status quo bias’, Journal of Economic Perspectives, 5 (1991), 193–206.
37. E. van Dijk and D. van Knippenberg, ‘Trading wine: On the endowment effect, loss aversion, and the comparability of consumer goods’, Journal of Economic Psychology, 19 (1998), 485–95; J. L. Knetsch, ‘The endowment effect and evidence of non-reversible indifference curves’, American Economic Review, 79 (1989), 1277–84.
38. J. R. Wolf, H. R. Arkes and W. A. Muhanna, ‘The power of touch: An examination of the effect of duration of physical contact on the valuation of objects’, Judgment and Decision Making, 3 (2008), 476–82.
39. B. Knutson, G. E. Wimmer, S. Rick, N. G. Hollon, D. Prelec and G. Loewenstein, ‘Neural antecedents of the endowment effect’, Neuron, 58 (2008), 814–22.
40. A. Kogut and E. Kogut, ‘Possession attachment: Individual differences in the endowment effect’, Journal of Behavioral Decision Making (20 April 2010): doi:10.1002/bdm.698.
41. M. Wallendorf and E. J. Arnould, ‘“My favorite things”: A cross-cultural inquiry into object attachment, possessiveness, and social linkage’, Journal of Consumer Research, 14 (1988), 531–47.
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43. M. H. Kuhn and T. S. McPartland, ‘An empirical investigation of self-attitude’, American Sociological Review, 19 (1954), 68–76.
44. W. M. Maddux, H. Yang, C. Falk, H. Adam, W. Adair, Y. Endo, Z. Carmon and S. J. Heine, ‘For whom is parting with possessions more painful? Cultural differences in the endowment effect’, Psychological Science, 21 (2010), 1910–17.
45. A. P. Bayliss, A. Firschen, M. J. Fenske and S. P. Tipper, ‘Affective evaluations of objects are influenced by observed gaze direction and emotional expression’, Cognition, 104 (2007), 644–53.
6 How the Tribe Made Me
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2. R. B. Zajonc, ‘Social facilitation’, Science, 149 (1965), 269–74.
3. G. Porter, B. M. Hood, T. Troscianko and C. N. Macrae, ‘Females, but not males, show greater pupillary response to direct than deviated gaze faces’, Perception, 35 (2006), 1129–36.
4. J. W. Michaels, J. M. Blommel, R. M. Brocato, R. A. Linkous and J. S. Rowe, ‘Social facilitation and inhibition in a natural setting’, Replications in Social Psychology, 2 (1982), 21–4.
5. S. J. Karau and K. D. Williams, ‘Social loafing: A meta-analytic review and theoretical integration’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65 (1993), 681–706.
6. S. Moscovici and M. Zavalloni, ‘The group as a polarizer of attitudes’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 12 (1969), 125–35.
7. I. Janis, Groupthink (New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1982).
8. ‘DJ condemned for playing Van Halen’s Jump as woman leaps from bridge’, Daily Mail (18 January 2010).
9. L. Mann, ‘The baiting crowd in episodes of threatened suicide’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41 (1981), 703–9.
10. T. Postmes and R. Spears, ‘Deindividuation and antinormative behavior: A meta-analysis’, Psychological Bulletin, 123 (1998), 238–59.
11. M. Bateson, D. Nettle and G. Roberts, ‘Cues of being watched enhance cooperation in a real-world setting’, Biology Letters, 2:3 (2006), 412–14.
12. E. Diener and M. Wallbom, ‘Effects of self-awareness on antinormative behavior’, Journal of Research in Personality, 10 (1976), 107–11.
13. V. Bell, ‘Riot psychology’, blog posted on the Mind Hacks website (2011), www.mindhacks.com.
14. T. Postmes and R. Spears (1998).
15. P. Rochat, Others in Mind (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
16. National Institutes of Health, ‘Bullying widespread in US schools, survey finds’, National Institutes of Health press release (24 April 2001), www.nichd.nih.gov/news/releases/bullying.cfm.
17. N. R. Crick and J. K. Grotpeter, ‘Relational aggression, gender, and social-psychological adjustment’, Child Development, 66 (1995), 710–22.
18. N. I. Eisenberger, M. D. Lieberman and K. D. Williams, ‘Does rejection hurt? An FMRI study of social exclusion’, Science, 302 (2003), 290–92.
19. R. F. Baumeister, C. N. Dewall, N. J. Ciarocco and J. M. Twenge, ‘Social exclusion impairs self-regulation’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88 (2005), 589–604.
20. K. D. Williams and S. A. Nida, ‘Ostracism: consequences and coping’, Current Directions in Psychology, 20 (2011), 71–5.
21. M. Gruter and R. D. Masters (eds), ‘Ostracism: A social and biological phenomenon’, Ethology and Sociobiology, 7 (1986), 149–395.
22. K. D. Williams, ‘Ostracism: A temporal need-threat model’, in M. Zanna (ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (New York, NY: Academic Press, 2009), 279–314.
23. W. A. Warburton, K. D. Williams and D. R. Cairns, ‘When ostracism leads to aggression: The moderating effects of control deprivation’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42 (2006), 213–20.
24. M. R. Leary, R. M. Kowalski and L. Smith, ‘Case studies of the school shootings’, Aggressive Behavior, 29 (2003), 202–214.
25. Telegram to the Friar’s Club of Beverly Hills, as recounted in G. Marx, Groucho and Me (New York, NY: B. Geis, 1959), 321.
26. A. Bandura, B. Underwood and M. E. Fromson, ‘Disinhibition of aggression through diffusion of responsibility and dehumanization of victims’, Journal of Research in Personality, 9 (1975), 253–69.
27. H. Tajfel, M. G. Billig, R. P. Bundy and C. Flament, ‘Social categorization and intergroup behaviour’, European Journal of Social Psychology, 1 (1971), 149–78.
28. W. Peters, A Class Divided, Then and Now (Expanded ed., New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987).
29. M. B. Brewer, ‘The social self: On being the same and different at the same time’, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17 (1991), 475–82.
30. S. E. Asch, ‘Studies of independence and conformity: 1. A minority of one against a unanimous majority’, Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 70 (1956), 1–70.
31. D. K. Campbell-Meiklejohn, D. R. Bach, A. Roepstorff, R. J. Dolan and C. D. Frith, ‘How the opinion of others affects our valuation of objects’, Current Biology, 20 (2010), 1165–70; J. Zaki, J. Schirmer and J. P. Mitchell, ‘Social influence modulates the neural computation of value’, Psychological Science, 22 (2011), 894–900.
32. P. Zimbardo, The Lucifer Effect: How Good People Turn Evil (London: Random House, 2007).
33. S. Reicher and S. A. Haslam, ‘Rethinking the psychology of tyranny: The BBC prison study’, British Journal of Social Psychology, 45 (2006), 1–40.
34. Cool Hand Luke (1967), directed by Stuart Rosenberg, Warner Brothers.
35. S. Milgram, ‘Behavioral study of obedience’, Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67 (1963), 371–8.
36. C. L. Sheridan and R. G. King, ‘Obedience to authority with an authentic victim’, Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, 7: 1 (1972), 165–6.
37. C. K. Hofling, E. Brotzman, S. Dalrymple, N. Graves and C. M. Pierce, ‘An experimental study in nurse-physician relationships’, Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorder, 143 (1966), 171–80.
38. The hoax strip-search scam and Zimbardo’s involvement are documented in his book, Zimbardo (2007).
39. C. Borge, ‘The science of evil’, Primetime, ABC News (3 January 2007), http://abcnews.go.com/Primetime/story?id=2765416andpage=1.
40. E. Brockes, ‘What happens in war happens’, interview with Lynndie England, Guardian (3 January 2009), www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/jan/03/abughraib-lynndie-england-interview.
41. H. Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil (London: Faber and Faber, 1963).
42. A. Dijksterhuis and A. van Knippenberg, ‘The relation between perception and behavior, or how to win a game of “Trivial Pursuit”’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74 (1998), 865–77.
43. T. L. Chartrand and J. A. Bargh, ‘The chameleon effect: The perception-behavior link and social interaction’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76 (1999), 893–910.
44. J. N. Cappella and S. Panalp, ‘Talk and silence sequences in informal conversations: III. Inter-speaker influence’, Human Communication Research, 7 (1981), 117–32.
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46. R. B. van Baaren, W. W. Maddux, T. L. Chartrand, C. DeBouter and A. van Knippenberg, ‘It takes two to mimic: behavioural consequences of self-construals’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84 (2003), 1093–1102.
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49. R. B. van Baaren, R. W. Holland, B. Steenaert and A. van Knippenberg, ‘Mimicry for money: Behavioral consequences of imitation’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39 (2003), 393–8.
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