Encyclopedia of Jewish Food

by Gil Marks

  Okra and chicken stews are popular summer Sabbath fare from India to Tunisia. Persians cook okra in a lamb stew called yakhnat. Among Sephardim from Turkey and the Balkans, okra in tomato sauce, typically accompanied with rice or flatbread, was both everyday fare and a Sabbath dish from late spring through Sukkot. In some households, okra is also common at the meal following the fast of Yom Kippur. Syrians feature okra flavored with tamarind on Rosh Hashanah and festive occasions.

  Sephardic Okra with Tomatoes (Bamia Kon Domates)

  6 to 8 servings

  [PAREVE]

  2 pounds (7 cups) whole small okra, caps removed, or 20 ounces frozen okra

  2 quarts water mixed with ½ cup white or cider vinegar

  5 tablespoons olive oil

  2 medium onions, chopped

  2 to 3 cloves garlic, minced

  4 cups (24 ounces) peeled, seeded, and chopped plum tomatoes; or 6 ounces tomato paste dissolved in 2 cups water

  About 1 teaspoon table salt or 2 teaspoons kosher salt

  2 to 4 tablespoons fresh lemon juice

  1 to 2 tablespoons granulated or brown sugar

  Ground black pepper to taste

  1. Soak the okra in the vinegar water for 1 hour. Drain and pat dry.

  2. In a large skillet or saucepan, heat 3 tablespoon oil over medium heat. Add the okra and sauté until golden, about 15 minutes. Remove the okra.

  3. Add the remaining 2 tablespoons oil, onions, and garlic and sauté until soft and translucent, 5 to 10 minutes. Add the tomatoes and salt and cook, stirring occasionally, until softened, about 15 minutes.

  4. Add the lemon juice, sugar, and pepper. Return the okra, cover, and simmer over low heat until tender, about 30 minutes, or bake in a 375°F oven until tender, about 1 hour. Serve warm or at room temperature.

  Olive

  There are about forty species in the Oleaceae family of evergreen trees, but only one is of importance to humans—the olive, which bears a small drupe, a fruit with a single large pit. Wild olives grow throughout northern Israel and southern Syria, which is considered the probable site of its origin. Although it takes at least five years for an olive tree to bear fruit, it lives for an incredibly long time, thriving even in poor soil and resisting long periods of drought. The Garden of Gethsemane (Hebrew for "olive press"), lying at the base of the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem, contains viable olive trees dating back more than two thousand years and there are a few others in the country that are even older.

  Olives, among the Seven Species with which the land of Israel was praised in the Bible, have played a long and important role in Jewish life and lore as a symbol of beauty, endurance, light, and sanctity. After an olive tree is cut down, the roots sprout suckers that grow into a new tree; accordingly, the olive tree also represents renewal and fertility. In addition, the story of Noah and the dove led to the tree's association with peace. Today, olive branches can be seen on both the official emblem of Israel (two olive branches flanking a menorah) and the Great Seal of the United States (an eagle holding an olive branch in its right talon). Some scholars believe that the olive's hard, gnarled root served as the original plow. The Temple doors were also made from olive wood. One of the standard units of measurement used by Biblical and Talmudic authorities was the kezayit (like an olive); this was the amount of matza each person was required to eat at the Passover Seder.

  The olive tree was first cultivated nearly six thousand years ago. It was initially grown for its oil and the fruit itself was not consumed. Green olives, picked around September, are extremely hard unripe fruit; black olives, ranging in flavor from mild to pungent and in color from reddish brown to purple to deep black, are fruit allowed to fully ripen on the tree until late November or December. All olives contain oleuropein. This bitter substance must be leached out of whole olives in order to make the fruit edible, although the substance separates naturally from the oil. It is possible that thousands of years ago, a traveler walking along the Mediterranean Sea stumbled upon the olives from an abutting tree that had fallen into the salty water and, sufficiently hungry, tasted one, found it palatable, and subsequently figured out how to prepare them by soaking in brine. The Romans seem to have originated lye curing. The hard flesh of most green olives withstands brine and is, therefore, first soaked in a lye solution for about two weeks, removing most of the bitterness and breaking down the flesh. After being immersed in lye, olives are then wet-cured in brine or, occasionally, dry-cured in rock salt. Brine-curing without soaking in lye or cracking can take up to two years. Brine-cured green olives are sometimes cracked to allow the brine to penetrate, thereby cutting the curing time to less than a year. Inhabitants of the Mediterranean tend to favor shriveled brine-cured ripe black olives, sometimes called Greek-style olives, which possess a smoky flavor. Most canned American black olives are actually lye-cured green olives whose color derives from aeration and exposure to ferrous gluconate. They tend to be sweet and juicy, but bereft of any genuine olive flavor.

  There are hundreds of types of olives, which may be classified by a number of categories including variety, size, color, place of origin, or type of cure. Olives range from bland to strong, simple to complex. The fruit's texture and flavor is determined by the variety, growing conditions (climate and soil), degree of ripeness, subsequent processing, and storage. Olives are a ubiquitous sight at Middle Eastern tables; they are served as a side dish at breakfast, lunch, and dinner, as well as cooked in a myriad of dishes, such as stews and casseroles, and added to salads. Residents of the Mediterranean believe that brine hides the true flavor of olives and, therefore, generally rinse and sometimes soak them in water before adding to a dish. Cured olives are frequently marinated in various aromatics to create new layers of flavor. The older the olive, the more porous it becomes and the more flavors it absorbs.

  Archeological excavations at Masada and other sites reveal that the most common olive varieties in biblical and Talmudic times were the Nabali (indigenous to Israel), followed far behind by Souri (Syrian). In addition, during Roman times, two varieties that do not grow in Israel were occasionally imported: the Shami from Syria and the Toffahi from Egypt. The most important varieties in modern Israel include Barnea, Maalot, Manzanillo, Nabali, and Souri.

  Olive Oil

  Olives, depending on the variety and maturity, are anywhere from 8 percent to a staggering 40 percent oil by weight. As olives ripen on the tree, they darken and develop more oil and sugar. Olives destined for use on the table are generally picked green in September or October, while those for making oil are left on the tree until late November through December. Even long before the advent of Hanukkah in 165 BCE, the twenty-fifth day of Kislev was the traditional date for the end of the harvest of olives for oil, as well as the last day on which the bikkurim (first fruits) of that year could be brought to the Temple. A single tree can produce up to twenty gallons of oil every year.

  Olive oil was one of the world's first oils; it was first made in the Levant six thousand years ago and eventually became the primary fat of most of the Mediterranean region. The English word oil is derived from the Latin word for olive, olea. Neolithic pottery containing olive pits and remnants of olives found near Mount Carmel in Israel reflect the earliest method of oil production—pounding the ripe fruit in small pots. Eventually, a rudimentary form of mass production developed—the olives were pounded by foot in large rock-hewn tubs and the oil was channeled into collection vats, where, over the course of several days, the oil separated from the heavier water and sediments. This process, however, resulted in a great waste of precious resources, with much oil remaining in the pulp, as well as sore feet.

  In order to extract the sizable amount of remaining oil, people began to grind the pulp with a millstone and then press it. By the early Iron Age (tenth century BCE), the lever press had developed; it was followed, about three centuries later, by the crushing wheel. In the latter device, the olives, pits and all, were ground in an open tub by a rotating vertical stone whe
el attached to a long horizontal wooden beam, which was turned around a large vertical wooden beam by a donkey or ox that had been blindfolded to prevent dizziness. The paste was then transferred to woven fiber baskets, about three inches thick and two feet in diameter; stacked atop several other baskets; and squeezed in a lever press. This process took several hours or even days to complete. The released dark liquid flowed into massive collection basins or pots. Many ancient crushing wheels in Israel have been found in caves—the cooler air and absence of direct sunlight made these locations ideal for preserving the oil. By the Talmudic period, a method had been introduced by which the olives could be crushed without breaking the pits, and the wooden screw had been employed to more effectively press the pulp. Virtually every Israeli village, as well as many homes, possessed at least a small press.

  Olive oil formed part of the trio, along with grain (wheat and barley) and wine, that served as the basis of the diet and economy of ancient Israel; it was used not only as a food, but also as a fuel, a medicine, and an ingredient in cosmetics and ointments. Many small pottery lamps made over the course of thousands of years have been excavated throughout Israel, attesting to oil's once-essential role in interior illumination.

  Olives are one of the Seven Species of Israel noted in the Bible. Grindstones, here found in Capernaum, Israel, were used to separate the meat from the oil—a more efficient innovation over the earlier method of pounding olives by foot.

  Not surprisingly, olive oil played a central role in the rituals and culture of ancient Israel, serving as a symbol of holiness, wisdom, abundance, and blessing. Olive oil is among the seven agricultural items with which the land of Israel was praised—"a land of wheat and barley, and vines and fig-trees and pomegranates; a land of oil-olives and honey." The Talmud reveals a traditional view in which the oil is preferred over the olives: "Olives produce forgetfulness of what one has learned, while olive oil makes a clear head." The grain offerings of the Temple were kneaded with olive oil. Even the word messiah (anointed) refers to olive oil; Jewish kings were anointed with olive oil, as were Aaron and his sons as priests. In honor of the role of olive oil in the land of Israel, the Sages mandated the kindling of lights (nayrot) for the inauguration of the Sabbath and festivals. Wine is represented by the Kiddush and grains by the Hamotzi. The holiday of Hanukkah is associated with the olive oil of the Temple, where a very pure form was used to light the menorah (candelabra) every day. Lights are still used in Jewish tradition to express transition. They are kindled to usher in the Sabbath and the festivals, and to close the Sabbath during the Havdalah ceremony; they are frequently carried by members of a wedding party, and are lit during shiva (mourning) and for a yahrtzeit (anniversary of a death).

  Today, Israel produces about five thousand tons of olive oil annually, primarily from Barnea, Nabali, and Souri cultivars grown in the Jezreel Valley in the Galilee. Olive oil is generally classified by three grades, based upon the amount of acidity: extra-virgin, virgin, and pure. Extra-virgin oil is cold-pressed from the first pressing. Virgin oil is generally produced from the second or third pressing. Pure, the lowest grade, is a misleading term indicating that it is made only from olives. However, pure olive oil is chemically refined and deodorized to reduce acidity and impurities. If the label contains the word pomace, the oil has been extracted by adding solvents to the pulp.

  Olive oil has long been essential to Italian and Sephardic cuisines. Among the Spanish Inquisition's signs of Jewish cooking was the use of olive oil for frying. Ashkenazim in Europe, on the other hand, living far from the Mediterranean home of the olive, rarely if ever saw or tasted its oil. Jews from central Asia relied on other oils, such as sesame, and rarely enjoyed olive oil. Today in modern Israel, olive oil is commonly used by the entire population.

  (See also Hanukkah, Oil, and Olive)

  Onion

  The onion, a name derived from the Latin unio (large pearl), is a member of the lily family. There are three predominant onion bulb colors: yellow, white, and red (purple). Green onions are the shoots of immature onions that have formed a 1- to 2-inch bulb, but the bulb has not yet developed its papery covering. Pearl onions are white onions that are harvested while still small, resulting in a mild flavor.

  This native of Afghanistan or central Asia was already used as food by the Stone Age and, for much of history, raw onions, together with bread, beer, and legumes, served as the mainstay of the common person's diet in western and central Asia and north Africa. Today, onions are the world's sixth largest vegetable crop, not only because these bulbs serve as the base flavor of many dishes, but also because they are able to make other foods more flavorful. The earliest Sumerian inscriptions, dating back nearly forty-five hundred years, mentioned onions and later Hammurabi's Code mandated that a ration of bread and onions be given monthly to the poor. The Greek historian Herodotus noted that the workers who built the pyramids, in which pictures of these bulbs were common, subsisted on "[black] radishes, onions, and leeks," all purported to build stamina.

  The Bible relates that the Israelites after leaving Egypt yearned for six items, including betzalim (onions). From the onset, onions have been an essential and enduring element of Jewish cooking and no contemporary form of Jewish cuisine would be complete without this pungent bulb. Onions were commonly mentioned in rabbinic literature. A Talmudic sage recommended, "Eat betzal [onion] and dwell in the ba'tzel [shade], and do not eat geese and fowl lest your heart pursue you; reduce your food and drink and increase [expenditure] on your house." In other words, spending too much on rich foods causes debt and diverts money from household expenses; onions were recommended because they were in line with the general Jewish philosophy of moderation and health.

  By the eleventh century, salted raw onions were a common Sabbath dish in Franco-Germany. Soon chopped onions were mixed with other favorite foods, including hard-boiled eggs, fish, and chopped liver, creating classic Ashkenazic dishes. Onions remained the principal seasoning for Ashkenazim for a millennium; they were sometimes used both raw and cooked in the same dish for different tastes and textures. In some instances, onions were a major or even sole component of Ashkenazic dishes. Yiddish is replete with onion idioms, including "tzibeleh trern" (akin to crocodile tears) and "s'iz nisht vert tzibeleh" (it isn't worth an onion).

  Browned onions and fried onions are among the elements that define Ashkenazic cuisine. Ashkenazic cooks knew that golden brown fried onions enlivened their otherwise basic and bland food. They mixed browned onions into a host of dishes, such as scrambled eggs, salads (especially egg salad), soups, mashed potatoes, kasha, pasta, savory noodle kugel, pirogen, and sandwiches. Onions lie at the heart of a Hungarian paprikás, in which the onions are not sautéed with fat in the typical manner, but rather cooked, covered and with the addition of a little liquid to prevent burning, for an extended time.

  Onions were also beloved, if less vital, in the Mediterranean area and central Asia. The Spanish Inquisition considered a sign of being a practicing Jew as "making their meat dishes with onions and garlic and cooking them in oil [instead of lard]." Sephardic dishes include sevoyas reyenadas (stuffed onions) and sevoyas agras dulces (sweet and sour onions). Raw onion salads remain widespread in central Asia and the Caucasus. Onions lie at the base of Ethiopian stews (wots), in which they are uniquely first cooked in a dry pan before being adding to the fat. Lithuanians call browned onions or other fillings in the heart of a dumpling neshomelekh (little souls), elevating a simple dish to another level.

  Orange

  The orange, the world's most popular citrus, is the fruit (technically a large berry), of a subtropical tree probably originating in northeastern India and thought to by a hybrid of the pomelo and mandarin. The Sanskrit word narunga (fruit like an elephant) is the source of the Persian narang. Around 1380, the French word orenge made its way into Middle English, and it was eventually spelled orange. From the fruit later came the English name of the color.

  The orange, both fruit and tree, was
depicted in mosaics from Pompeii (destroyed in 79 CE). Ceiling mosaics for the mausoleum in Rome built by the Emperor Constantine for his daughter around 330 CE clearly depict oranges and lemons. But oranges and other citrus disappeared from Europe following the Lombard invasion in 568 and the fall of the Roman Empire, and did not reappear in Italy until at least the eleventh century.

  The Arabs had brought oranges, along with revolutionary agricultural and irrigation techniques, west from Persia through North Africa to Spain by the end of the ninth century, and to Sicily by 1002. Besides the Arabs, the history of oranges in the West is intrinsically intertwined with the Jews who cultivated citrons (etrogim) for Sukkot and also grew new species when they became available. It was by no coincidence that the centers of medieval citrus cultivation directly corresponded to the centers of Jewish population.

  Not only did Jews play a historic role in Mediterranean citrus production, but Sephardim were the early citrus distributors and wholesalers. In addition, they actively cultivated and traded oranges and lemons in the Caribbean and South America. In the nineteenth century, Ashkenazic peddlers began selling oranges in many parts of Europe. Scottish clergyman William Brown, in his two-volume Antiquities of the Jews (Edinburgh, 1823), recounted, "At present, they carry these branches [palm] into the synagogue, and provide themselves with oranges and citrons in countries where they do not grow." The book London Labour and the London Poor by Henry Mayhew (London, 1851) included a chapter entitled "How the Street-Irish Displanted the Street-Jews in the Orange Trade" in which he explained that "the trade was, not many years ago, confined almost entirely to the Jew boys who kept aloof from the vagrant lads of the streets," until Jews found it more profitable to peddle other wares. But although Jewish street peddlers selling oranges disappeared, the Jews maintained for a while a monopoly of the wholesale end of the orange business in England. In many eastern European households, an orange was considered a special Hanukkah present.