Encyclopedia of Jewish Food

by Gil Marks

  Risotto was probably inspired by the rice dishes brought to the region by Sicilian exiles or Sephardim who arrived in Italy at the same time that rice cultivation became widespread in northern Italy and risotto initially appeared. Italian Jews have long prepared risotto, serving it plain (risotto bianco) or enhanced with various vegetables (artichokes, celery, eggplant, peas, pumpkin, spinach, and zucchini), meat, sausages, chicken giblets (con regagli), or mushrooms. Risotto tinted with saffron (risotto giallo or riso col zafran) is still prepared on Friday afternoon for Sabbath dinner (risotto del Sabato). On Hanukkah, raisins are added. Risotto coi carciofi (rice with artichokes), making use of the new crop, is common during Passover. The Jews of the Venetian Ghetto typically made a simple form of the dish, risotto semplice.

  Many cooks insist on using Arborio, a short-grain rice grown in the Po Valley of northern Italy, which is almost as thick as it is long. Arborio is perfect for making risotto as it can absorb a great deal of liquid while simultaneously releasing its starch, resulting in a creamy sauce and a rice kernel that remains al dente (firm to the tooth). Other Italian varieties can be substituted for Arborio; these varieties can be divided into three grades based upon size: semifino (the smallest), fino, and superfino. Arborio is a superfino. Vialone Nano (a semifino), the most popular variety in Venice, is slightly smaller and rounder than Arborio and quicker cooking. Carnaroli, a superfino variety, is more elongated than Arborio, has a slightly firmer texture, and takes longer to cook than other types. Another superfino rice is Baldo, which is longer, slimmer, and flatter than Arborio.

  Risotto was historically a simple comfort food largely consigned to family dinners, at which it was usually served as a first course (primo piatto) following the antipasto or sometimes as an accompaniment to classical veal dishes, such as osso buco, or as a light main course. Toward the end of the twentieth century, risotto became fare at chic American restaurants.

  (See also Bomba)

  Venetian Simple Risotto (Risotto Semplice)

  3 to 4 servings

  [dairy or meat]

  3 tablespoons olive oil

  1 medium onion, chopped

  1 large clove garlic, chopped

  1½ cups (10 ounces) Vialone Nano, Arborio, or Carnaroli rice

  ½ cup dry white wine

  4 cups vegetable or chicken broth, heated to a simmer

  About ½ teaspoon table salt or 1 teaspoon kosher salt

  About ½ teaspoon ground black pepper

  A pinch (about 18 strands) of saffron (optional)

  6 tablespoons grated Parmesan cheese (optional)

  1. In a large saucepan, heat the oil over medium heat. Add the onion and sauté until soft and translucent, 5 to 10 minutes. Add the garlic and sauté until fragrant, about 1 minute. Add the rice and stir until well coated and opaque, about 3 minutes. Add the wine and cook until the liquid evaporates, about 3 minutes.

  2. Add 2 cups broth and the salt, pepper, and, if using, saffron. Cook over low heat, uncovered, stirring occasionally, until the liquid has been absorbed, about 15 minutes. Add the remaining 2 cups broth and simmer, uncovered, stirring occasionally, until the rice is tender but still very moist and not mushy, about 15 minutes.

  3. If using the vegetable broth, stir in the Parmesan.Serve immediately on preheated plates or bowls to maintain the creaminess.

  Rosca

  Rosca is the name of various ring-shaped breads and cookies.

  Origin: Spain

  Other names: biscocho de levadura, roskita, roskita de gueve.

  In Washington Irving's 1832 collection of short stories, The Alhambra, derived from his visit to Spain, he noted, "Here live the bakers who furnish Seville with that delicious bread for which it is renowned; here are fabricated those roscas well known by the well-merited appellation of pan de Dios (bread of God); for which, by the way, we ordered our man, Sancho, to stock his alforjas for the journey." Irving was referring to hard baked bread rings called rosca (Spanish for "coil/spiral").

  The original type of rosca consisted of rings of yeast bread baked twice, greatly extending its shelf life, like the Italian biscotti. For centuries, Spanish ships carried roscas as provisions for the sailors, as they can last for many years. (The term rosca gave rise in 1595 to the English term for twice-baked cookies, rusk.) Small hard rings made from bread dough were neither a new nor a Spanish concept, as these breads were an ancient Middle Eastern food, one mentioned in the Talmud as kaak. The Spanish developed a cookie version (roscas dulce) sweetened with sugar and typically flavored with anise, also known as biscochos dulces; those containing eggs are called biscochos de huevo (egg cookies). Hard pretzel-shaped versions are reshicas. Hard sweetened roscas, shaped into rings and flavored with anise or cinnamon, are found in parts of the American Southwest, where they were introduced by Conversos.

  For many centuries, hard baked Spanish bread rings called rosca have served as staples for travelers and soldiers. These breads also gave rise to various ring-shaped Sephardic pastries and softer breads also called rosca.

  In addition to the various hard pastries, cooks created a softer bread, similar to a coffee cake ring, which is also called rosca. In many Sephardic homes, the sweet yeast cake version of roscas, in the form of a large bread or more commonly smaller ring-shaped rolls, is served for desayuno (brunch) on the Sabbath along with feta and Kasseri cheese, olives, and coffee. In Turkey, the coffee cake is typically accented with cloves. Any leftover rolls are sliced and toasted until hard, like biscotti, for longer storage; the toasted slices are sometimes called parmaks. These sweet breads became traditional for holidays and celebrations, in particular for Purim and Shavuot. A ring- or crescent-shaped cookie with a filling is referred to as roskitas alhashu or roscas di alhashu. This is a popular Purim treat in the Balkans—the crescent-shaped cookie is said to resemble the ear that the villain Haman lost before his execution. In Greece, the bread is also referred to as tsoureki, and typically braided, the twisted ring of bread resembling the noose used to hang Haman. "Roscas de Purim" is the name of a nineteenth-century Ladino song traditional for that holiday.

  (See also Biscocho, Bollo, Kaak, and Pandericas)

  Sephardic Sweet Yeast Rings (Roscas)

  3 medium breads

  [PAREVE]

  1 recipe bollo dough (see Sephardic Sweet Anise Bread (Bollo)), flavored with ¾ teaspoon ground anise, ½ teaspoon anise liqueur, ¾ teaspoon ground cinnamon, or ½ teaspoon ground cloves

  Egg wash (1 large egg beaten with 1 teaspoon water)

  Sesame seeds for sprinkling

  1. Divide the dough into thirds and form into balls. Poke a hole in the center of each ball and form into a 2-inch-thick doughnut. Place on a parchment paper—lined or lightly greased baking sheet. If desired, on the outer side of the rings at 2-inch intervals, cut ½-inch-deep slashes, separating the sections. Cover loosely with plastic wrap or a kitchen towel and let rise in a warm, draft-free place until nearly doubled in bulk, about 1 hour.

  2. Preheat the oven to 350°F.

  3. Brush with the egg wash, then sprinkle with the sesame seeds. Bake until golden brown, about 30 minutes. Transfer the breads to a wire rack and let cool.

  Rose Water

  In 800 CE, the Arab scholar Jabir ibn Hayyan in- vented an improved still. About two centuries later, the Bukharan-born physician ibn Sina (980—1037), whose name was Latinized as Avicenna, discovered how to use the still to extract the essential oil from flower petals. This allowed for the steam distillation of floral waters, particularly rose water—ma wared in Arabic, golab in Persian, and gulab-jal in India. Rose water is distilled from fresh rose petals from the damask variety (Rosa damascena), which has small pink and white flowers and leaves that are glossy on the top and hairy on the bottom. Damask roses are also preferred for making rose preserves. The rose petals are placed in a large copper still, covered with water, and simmered over a low heat; the vapor passes through a tube, where it condenses at the other end. Initially developed as a means of adminis
tering drugs, the floral waters were soon appropriated for perfumes and cooking. Some Middle Eastern women wash with rose water or use it as a body mist. In many Yemenite homes, a bottle of rose water was kept near the door to sprinkle on arriving guests and it was also sprinkled at celebrations. Although Americans value roses almost exclusively for their aesthetic quality, Middle Easterners and Indians know that they have a beauty in the kitchen, adding flavor and aroma to puddings, pastries, confections (such as Turkish delight), fruit dishes, and beverages (including teas).

  Rose water used in pastries and other dishes throughout the Middle East comes from the Damask rose.

  The distillation process has changed little over the centuries, and some families throughout the Middle East continue to make their own floral waters in home stills in basements and garages, producing enough to last for a year or more. In Israel and other Middle Eastern countries, commercial bottles of rose water are sold from grocery stores. In the West, rose water is available at Middle Eastern and Indian markets as well as many pharmacies. Some commercial distilled waters are concentrated and others are diluted, the strength varying depending on the amount of dilution. Therefore, cooks must adjust the amount used in cooking according to the individual product and personal preference. Too much rose water results in a soapy taste, so it is used sparingly. For reasons of kashrut, many Jewish cooks avoid distilled waters containing glycerine.

  During the medieval period, the use of rose water spread to Europe and later America and it became a prominent flavoring. Hence Rosenwasser (rose water) became a German surname. However, in the nineteenth century, with the advent of vanilla extract and other new flavorings, rose water all but disappeared from Western cookery. On the other hand, it remains a prominent feature of Middle Eastern cuisines. Rose water is a traditional flavoring on Shavuot among Sephardim, who call the holiday "the Feast of Roses."

  (See also Orange-Blossom Water)

  Rosh Hashanah

  Rosh Hashanah (literally "Head of the Year") is a two-day autumn holiday traditionally marking the creation of the world. Rosh Hashanah begins a ten-day period of transition, concentrated introspection, prayer, and inner transformation leading to Yom Kippur, known as Yamim Noraim (Days of Awe). Nevertheless, Rosh Hashanah is an occasion of great joy and feasting. During the holiday, it is considered a segulah (good omen) to eat certain foods and perform simanim (symbolic acts) that help a person to reflect on the past and ponder the future. Consequently, no other holiday has more symbolic foods than Rosh Hashanah.

  The initial source of these symbolic foods is the Talmud, which suggested five items to eat on Rosh Hashanah—kraa (gourds), rubiya (fenugreek), karti (leeks), silka (beet greens/chard), and tamar (dates). These particular plants were specified because of a phonological similarity between their names and other words, thereby signifying an aspiration for the new year. The Hebrew word for gourd, kraa, is similar to yikara (to be called out), suggesting that our good deeds should be called out at this time of judgment. In addition, it is similar to karah (to tear up), meaning that any harsh edicts against us should be torn up. The Aramaic word for fenugreek, rubiya, is similar to yirbu (increase/multiply). However, rubiya is commonly mistranslated as black-eyed peas, which is actually lubiya—as a result, black-eyed peas became traditional among Sephardim. The Hebrew word for leek, karti, is similar to yikartu (to be cut off), signifying that our enemies should be cut off. The term for beet greens and chard, silka, is reminiscent of the Hebrew she'yistalqu (that they will be removed), referring to our enemies. Similarly, the Hebrew word for date, tamar, sounds like yitamu (to be removed).

  Over the course of time, other foods gained their own status. Sephardim serve lung (re'ah in Hebrew) while reciting "Re'ah na bee'onyainu" (See us in our affliction). During the medieval period, the carrot reached the West; its Hebrew name became gezer, which also means "tear," as in "tear up any bad decrees," as well as "decree," signifying "Shelo yeehyu gezerot ra'ot olainu" (May there be no evil decrees against us). The carrot has several other attributes: Its Yiddish name, mehren, is similar to "multiply/increase"; it is sweet; and when sliced, its shape resembles golden coins. Rabbi David Oppenheim (1664—1736), chief rabbi of Prague, recorded the custom of eating turnips (rube) or carrots (mehren) on Rosh Hashanah.

  An ancient custom is to eat a new fruit—one not yet sampled that season—on the second night of Rosh Hashanah while reciting the blessing "Shehechiyanu" (Who has preserved us). In addition, seasonal produce frequently finds its way into favorite Rosh Hashanah fare, such as spinach and leeks among Sephardim, pumpkins among Italians, and apples and plums among Ashkenazim.

  The first recorded association of apples with Rosh Hashanah was in Machzor Vitry (a siddur compiled around 1100), which included this explanation: "The residents of France have the custom to eat on Rosh Hashanah red apples. Every thing new and bright and good for a good sign for all Israel." Future generations of Ashkenazim adopted the French custom of eating apples, leading to the most popular and widespread Ashkenazic Rosh Hashanah tradition. At the beginning of the evening meal, apple slices are dipped in honey and this phrase is recited: "May it be Your will to renew on us a good and sweet year."

  abbi Jacob ben Asher, who was born in Germany around 1269 and fled with his family to Spain in 1303, was the first to mention the custom of apples dipped in honey in his legal compendium Arbah Turim (c. 1310), citing it as a German tradition. Shortly after, the custom was recorded by Rabbi Alexander Susslein of Frankfort, Germany, in his work Sefer Agudah, revealing that it had become a widespread practice in Germany.

  As with a number of symbolic foods, the custom of apples in honey developed many layers of meaning. In mystical literature, an apple orchard is frequently pictured as a symbol of the divine presence, which the Zohar compares to "an apple orchard." In the Bible, honey is a food associated with the land of Israel. Honey is also an ancient symbol of immortality and truth. The sweetness of both the honey and apple serves as a wish for a sweet year to come.

  The custom of dipping apples into honey was connected to the biblical incident of Jonathan, who had not heard the oath of his father, King Saul, cursing anyone eating "vayehi hayom (it was that day)," and dipped his staff into and ate honey from a bee hive. According to tradition, in the Bible, the term "vayehi hayom" always refers to Rosh Hashanah. The incident of Jonathan serves as an inspiration for dipping an apple slice into honey, appealing to God to pardon us, as Jonathan was pardoned by his father.

  The first piece of challah, generally from a round loaf that frequently contains raisins or other dried fruits, is dipped into honey instead of the customary salt, a custom that is continued in many households until after Sukkot. Ashkenazim traditionally serve a honey cake called lekach, alluding to the phrase in Proverbs "for a goodly lekach [portion] have I given you," signifying the wish that we be given a salutary portion. Honey-cooked balls of dough are called teiglach. Sephardim make honey-soaked cakes, such as tishpishti. Hungarian Rosh Hashanah desserts generally continue the apple theme—hosts offer apple cakes, pie, or compote.

  Those fruits mentioned in the Bible—grapes, figs, dates, melons, and pomegranates—have a special place in Jewish tradition. Date trees are a symbol not only of beauty but of a paradigm for people to stand as straight and tall as a date palm. The many seeds of the pomegranate symbolize both fertility and good deeds: "May our merits multiply like pomegranate seeds." Melons and vegetables containing many seeds, such as pumpkin and squash, represent fertility and plenty. Syrian Jews enjoy date-filled cookies called ras ib adjweh. Indian Jews prepare a coconut milk halva garnished with nuts and raisins.

  For Mizrachim and Sephardim, the predominant Rosh Hashanah fruit is the quince, which comes into season around the holiday. Many Sephardim poach quinces in a syrup to serve as the first course of the Rosh Hashanah dinner. Greek Jews serve quince or rose preserves at the start of the meal. Persians stew quinces with lamb and onions. Moroccans combine quinces with carrots and prunes, as well as poaching
them. And often quinces are the base in different confections and cakes.

  In some homes, the head of a fish or lamb is displayed on the table, signifying the hope that in the coming year family members be the "rosh [head] and not the tail." Both lamb and fish also hold other meanings. Lamb is a reminder of the ram substituted for Isaac as a sacrifice, which tradition holds occurred on Rosh Hashanah. Fish is a symbol of fruitfulness ("May we be fruitful and multiply like fish"), the Jewish people, and the Leviathan to be served at the feast following the arrival of the messiah.

  Many Sephardic hosts feature a cornucopia of symbolic fruits and vegetables, customarily served in a basket called a trashkal, while others arrange seven symbolic foods, called Sheva Berachot (Seven Blessings), on a plate, creating a display similar to a Seder plate. It is the custom in Jerusalem to serve as many symbolic foods as possible. The head of the family removes one item at a time and recites an appropriate verse and/or a "Yehi ratztone..." (May it be Your will...). The first symbolic food is usually a date, which in some Sephardic homes is dipped into a mixture of ground sesame seeds, anise seeds, and sugar, called yitamu. Next is the pomegranate, followed by an apple or quince. These are followed by leeks, spinach or chard, and finally the head of a fish or lamb.

  In the Maghreb, the evening is organized into a Seder, an ordered succession of disparate tastes, smells, and colors. As a prelude to the festival meal, those gathered sample one or several vegetables representing the removal of enemies, notably beet greens, spinach, and pumpkin. Next, everyone is given a piece of a cooked lamb's or cow's head "to be like a head," then a piece of calf's heart "to open the heart to the Torah." The next theme is fertility and plenty, represented by beans, seeds (especially sesame), and fish. Afterward, biblical fruits are sampled—pomegranates ("may our merits be plentiful"), dates ("may the righteous flourish"), then figs (for a sweet year). The wish for an easy year is represented by a piece of cooked lung. Next comes the biblical olive. Finally, an apple slice is dipped in honey.