The Mammoth Book of King Arthur

by Mike Ashley

No matter how much Constantius embellishes this text, he was writing within only a generation or two of the real events and his readers would know exactly how Britain had fared over those years. Thus we must give some credence to his account that at this time Britain was wealthy and still unconquered by the Saxons.

  Constantius reveals that some years after this visit there was a resurgence of Pelagianism, and Germanus was again called upon to visit Britain, this time accompanied by Severus, bishop of Trier. The decision to return to Britain must have been sudden (despite another synod of bishops) because British officials were unaware of it. An official called Elafius, described as “one of the leading men in the country”, hurried to meet Germanus. Otherwise the visit is all too similar to the earlier one. The resurgence of Pelagianism seems to have been restricted to just a few, who were quickly identified and condemned. In order to prevent any further growth of Pelagianism, the leading heretics were taken by Germanus into exile on the continent.

  There is no separate record of Elafius in the pedigrees, but that would not be surprising if he were a church, rather than civic, official. Amongst the descendants of Coel is the Latinised name of Eleutherius (Eliffer in British), and although he lived a century later, in northern Britain, the name was not uncommon. I conjecture more on Elafius later.

  Constantius does not provide a date for this second visit or give any indication of how long it was after the first. The only clue is that Germanus died soon after his return. His death is usually dated to around 448, but that contradicts other known events. Most significant is that upon his return to Gaul, Germanus was sent to Ravenna to plead with the Emperor about the rebellious Bretons, but the 452 Chronicle records the downfall of their leader Tibatto by the year 437. This would place Germanus’s second visit in the year 436, a date which has growing support.

  At the core of Constantius’s account is a picture of a wealthy Britain, at least in the south. It was subject to surprise attacks from the Saxons and Picts but, by 436, the officials had regained some level of control and Britain was, perhaps, in a period of relative calm.

  2. The Welsh Annals

  The Welsh Annals, or Annales Cambriae, is a list of events, recorded year by year, which was kept by the British chroniclers. Over the years copies were made of copies and none of the original documents survives. The earliest copy (Manuscript A) dates from the end of the tenth century, but the earliest date entered relates to the year 447. Another version (Manuscript B) is of a later date although the entries go back far earlier. They are believed to have been copied from another document, most likely one of the Irish Annals, which runs until 1203, as does a third version (Manuscript C). Where A, B and C overlap, they are fairly consistent, with just an occasional variance of a few years.

  Unfortunately, there are only six entries for the fifth century and eighteen for the sixth century. Clearly either the original Annals were in such a poor state that later copyists were unable to interpret records against certain years or, more likely, the records were not commenced until much later. In fact a regular sequence of dates does not start until the year 807. The Welsh ruler Merfyn the Freckled, whose reign began in 825, encouraged the study of British history, and it is likely that during his reign the Annals as we know them were brought together from a variety of earlier documents. Therefore none of the fifth and sixth century records is likely to be contemporary. Moreover, it is impossible to tell whether entries were copied correctly from originals, or were distorted by error.

  There is an added problem in knowing which dates apply. The Annals do not record a standard date. Written in Latin, and thus recorded in Roman numerals, the entries begin from Year 1. Assuming that each individual year is accurately recorded, we need to find a year in which the event is recorded against a verifiable time line, and count back. The usual event selected is against Year 9, “Easter altered on the Lord’s Day by Pope Leo.” This happened at Easter 455, which makes Year 1 equal 447, the generally accepted date. Originally it was believed Leo had adjusted Easter earlier, in 452. Therefore, some sources list the Annals as starting in 444. There are other entries which help us identify dates, especially in relation to St Columba (Columcille), whose life was written by Adomnán, one of his followers, and who was excommunicated from Ireland in 561 and died on 9 June 597. The following Annals concur with this timeline, which allows some degree of confidence.

  Listed below are the relevant entries from the fifth and sixth centuries. The key dates are those for 518, 539 and 575.

  447

  Days as dark as night

  459

  St Patrick raised to the Lord

  460

  St David born thirty years after Patrick left Menevia

  518

  The Battle of Badon in which Arthur carries the Cross of Our Lord Jesus Christ for three days and three nights on his shoulders and the Britons were the victors

  523

  St Columcille born. The death of St Brigid

  539

  The battle of Camlann, in which Arthur and Medraut fell: and there was plague in Britain and Ireland

  549

  A great plague in which Mailcun king of Venedotia died

  560

  The death of Gabran son of Dungart

  564

  Columcille leaves for Britain

  565

  The voyage of Gildas to Ireland

  572

  Gildas, the wisest of Britons, died

  575

  The battle of Armterid between the sons of Eliffer and Guendoleu, son of Keidiau, in which battle Guendoleu fell; Myrddin became mad

  581

  Gwrgi and Peredur, sons of Eliffer, died

  591

  The conversion of Constantine to the Lord

  594

  Edilburt reigned in England

  597

  The death of Columcille. The death of king Dunaut, son of Pabo. Augustine and Mellitus converted the English to Christ

  Apart from the references to Arthur and Myrddin (Merlin), what strikes me most about these Annals is what little reference is made to other secular rulers. You would expect entries on such major church figures as Patrick and Columba, for example, but the only individuals actually designated as king (rex) are Mailcun (Maelgwyn) and Dunaut, and the Saxon ruler Edilburt (Athelbert). There is no mention of such well-attested rulers as Cadwallon or Rhun, let alone the more shadowy figures of Vortigern or Ambrosius Aurelianus. Most amazing of all, there is no mention of the domination of the Saxons. The monks may not have wanted to record the activities of pagan invaders, but it is surprising that there is no mention of Hengist or Cerdic or Aelle, names that figure strongly in Arthurian history. All of this suggests that not only were the Annals compiled at a later date, when the only reliable dates available to the chroniclers were a few well remembered events in church history, but that they came from a source, such as the Irish Annals, for which these secular British events were of no interest.

  With this in mind, one wonders just where the entries for Arthur and Merlin came from. Are these genuine or merely added by a later scribe who enjoyed the heroic tales? All the other entries are brief references to births, deaths and disasters, but the Arthurian and Myrddin entries are longer. The Badon entry almost feels like an echo of Germanus’s Alleluia victory (which is conspicuously missing), as if there were a folk memory of some distant battle of religious significance. We will encounter a similar reference amongst the list of Arthur’s battles rescued by Nennius.

  I do not believe that a monk would deliberately invent a record, though I believe he could include one in good faith. The other entries are known from other records, and no one would doubt their existence. To believe that the Arthur and Merlin entries were the only fabricated ones is to suggest a conspiracy, and there is no reason to suspect that of a ninth century annalist. However, they could have been copied from a document, now lost, which was erroneous, suggesting that both the names and the dates must be suspect.

  We may accep
t that the Welsh Annals provide hearsay evidence that someone called Arthur achieved a major victory at Badon, and that another Arthur (not necessarily the same one) “fell” at the battle of Camlann. They provide similar evidence for the existence of Merlin, even though this Merlin lived over thirty years after Arthur’s passing.

  3. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

  As with the Welsh Annals, there are no copies of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (ASC) contemporary with the fifth or sixth centuries. The oldest surviving copy, known as the Winchester Manuscript, seems to have been compiled during the reign of King Alfred, around 890, and continued by others into the tenth century. There are other variants of the ASC, most of much later date. As a consequence the reliability of the early entries is always open to question. It is evident that the compilers of the ASC drew upon other sources such as Bede for the entry for 449. Bede himself had relied heavily on Gildas for the early part of his history, so much of the ASC information is third hand. Unlike the Welsh Annals, however, the ASC tends to include more complete entries, sometimes adding anecdotes not available elsewhere.

  Once again I’ve selected records from the period 410–600, focusing on areas of importance. The translation comes primarily from Manuscript A, the oldest of the surviving versions of the ASC, but I’ve included any additional or variant data from the other versions within [square] brackets. I’ve kept place names in the original Saxon and show them in italics. Any brief interpretations by myself are in [square] brackets and italics.

  418.

  The Romans gathered all the gold-hoards there were in Britain; some they hid in the earth, so that no man might find them, and some they took with them to Gaul.

  443.

  The British sent men over the sea to Rome, and asked for help against the Picts, but they never got it, because [the Romans] were on an expedition against King Attila the Hun. They sent then to the Angles, and the Anglian Aethelings, with the same request.

  449.

  Mauricius [Martianus] and Valentinian succeeded to the kingdom and ruled seven years. And in their days Hengist and Horsa, invited by Vortigern, king of the Britons, came to Britain [in three ships] landing at the place which is named Ypwines fleot, at first to help the Britons, but later they fought against them. [The king Vortigern gave them land in the south-east of this land on condition that they fought against the Picts.] They did so and had victory wherever they went. They then sent to Angeln, requesting more aid, and commanded that they should be told of the Britons’ worthlessness and the choice nature of their land. They soon sent hither a greater host to help the others. Then came the men of three Germanic tribes: Old Saxons; Angles; and Jutes. [. . .] Their war-leaders were two brothers, Hengist and Horsa, who were Wihtgil’s sons. First of all, they killed and drove away the king’s enemies; then later they turned on the king and the British, destroying through fire and the sword’s edge.

  455.

  Hengist and Horsa fought against Vortigern the king in the place which is called Ægælesþrep, and his brother Horsa was killed. And after that Hengist, and Æsc his son, succeeded to the kingdom.

  456.

  Hengist and Aesc fought against the Britons in the place called Crecganford, and there killed 4,000 men [4 troops]; and the Britons then abandoned Centlond and in great fear fled to Lundenbyrg.

  465.

  Hengist and Aesc fought against the Welsh [i.e. British] near Wippedesfleot, and there killed 12 Welsh chieftains and one of their thegns, whose name was Wipped, was killed there.

  473.

  Hengist and Aesc fought against the Welsh and seized countless war-loot, and the Welsh fled from the English like fire.

  477.

  Aelle and his three sons came to Britain with three ships at the place which is named Cymenes ora, and there killed many Welsh and drove some to flight into the wood which is named Andredes leag.

  485.

  Here Aelle fought against the Welsh near the margin of Mearcrædes burnam.

  488.

  Here Aesc succeeded to the kingdom and was king of the inhabitants of Cantwara 24 years [34 years].

  491.

  Here Aelle and Cissa besieged Andredes cester and killed all who lived there; there was not even one Briton left there.

  495.

  Here two ealdormen, Cerdic and Cynric his son, came to Britain with five ships at the place called Cerdices ora, and on the same day fought against the Welsh [and were victors in the end].

  501.

  Here Port and his two sons, Bieda and Mægla came with two ships to Britain at the place which is called Portesmupa and immediately seized land] and killed a certain young British man – very noble.

  508.

  Here Cerdic and Cynric killed a certain British king, whose name was Natanleod [Nazanleod] and five thousand men with him, after whom the land as far as Cerdices ford was named Natanleag.

  514.

  Here the West Saxons came to Britain with three ships at the place called Cerdices ora, and Stuf and Wihtgar fought against the Britons and put them to flight.

  519.

  Here Cerdic and Cynric succeeded to the kingdom of the West Saxons; and the same year they fought against the Britons at the place they now name Cerdices ford. And the royal family of the West Saxons ruled from that day on.

  527.

  Here Cerdic and Cynric fought against the Britons at the place which is called Cerdices leag.

  530.

  Here Cerdic and Cynric took the Isle of Wight and killed a few [many] men at Wihtgaræsbyrg.

  534.

  Here Cerdic passed away and his son Cynric continued to rule 26 years; and they gave all Wight to their two nefa [i.e. nephews or grandsons] Stuf and Wihtgar.

  538.

  Here on 16 February the sun grew dark from early morning until undern [9.00 a.m.].

  540.

  Here on 20 June the sun grew dark and the stars appeared for well-nigh half an hour after undern.

  544.

  Here Wihtgar passed away and they buried him at Wihtgaræsbyrg.

  547.

  Here Ida, from whom originated the royal family of the Northumbrians, succeeded to the kingdom and ruled twelve years. And he built Bamburgh which was first enclosed by a stockade and thereafter by a wall.

  552.

  Here Cynric fought against the Britons at the place which is named Searo byrg and put the Britons to flight.

  556.

  Here Cynric and Ceawlin fought against the Britons at Beran byrg.

  560.

  Here Ceawlin succeeded to the kingdom in Wessex, and Aelle succeeded to the kingdom of the Northumbrians, Ida having died, and each of them ruled 30 years.

  565.

  Here Columba the priest came from Ireland to Britain to teach the Picts, and made a monastery on the island of Iona. Here Athelberht succeeded to the kingdom of Kent and held it 53 years.

  568.

  Here Ceawlin and Cutha [Ceawlin’s brother] fought against Athelberht and drove him into Kent; and they killed two ealdormen, Oslaf [Oslac] and Cnebba, on Wibbandun.

  571.

  Here Cuthwulf [Cutha] fought against the Britons at Biedcanford and took four settlements: Lygeanburg [Limbury], Ægelesburg [Aylesbury], Benningtun [Benson?], Egonesham [Eynsham]; and in the same year he passed away.

  577.

  Here Cuthwine and Ceawlin fought against the Britons and they killed three kings, Coinmail, Condidan and Farinmail, in the place which is called Dyrham; and took three cities, Gloucester, Cirencester and Bath.

  584.

  Here Ceawlin and Cutha fought against the Britons at the place which is named Fetham leag, and Cutha was killed; and Ceawlin took many towns and countless war-loot.

  588.

  Here King Aelle passed away and after him Aethelric ruled for five years.

  591.

  Here Ceol ruled for five [six] years.

  592.

  Here there was great slaughter at Woddes beorge and Ceawlin was driven out. Gregory s
ucceeded to the papacy in Rome.

  593.

  Here Ceawlin and Cwichelm and Crida perished; and Aethelfrith succeeded to the kingdom of the Northumbrians.

  595

  [596] Here Pope Gregory sent Augustine to Britain with very many monks who preached God’s word to the English nation.

  597.

  Here Ceolwulf began to rule in Wessex and he continually fought and strove either against the Angle race or against the Welsh or against the Picts or against the Scots.

  601.

  Here Pope Gregory sent the pallium to Archbishop Augustine in Britain and very many religious teachers to help him [and among them was] Paulinus who turned Edwin, king of Northumbria, to baptism.

  603.

  Here Aedan, king of the Scots, fought with Dæl Reoda and against Aethelfrith, king of the Northumbrians, at Dægsanstan and they killed almost all his raiding army; [there Aethelfrith’s brother, Theobald, was killed with all his troop. After that no king of the Scots dared lead a raiding army into his nation. Herin, son of Hussa, led the raiding army there.]

  There is no mention of Arthur, but that is perhaps not too surprising. The Saxons liked to record their victories and ignore their defeats. It is a shame that the Welsh Annals are not as complete, so that we had a more adequate view of both sides of the same story, although, arguably, the two chronicles are not telling the same story. The Welsh Annals are primarily church history with some secular references, whilst the ASC concentrates on the conquest of Britain. The only events to appear in both lists are the start of Columba’s mission and that of Augustine’s. Fortunately, both dates agree.