The Mammoth Book of King Arthur

by Mike Ashley

  1. The original Gawain

  In the Welsh tales, Gawain is Gwalchmai ap Gwyar, and is always referred to as the son of Arthur’s sister. Since she is usually called Anna, Gwyar must have been his father. However, Gwyar is a female name. The only Gwyar in the pedigrees is the daughter of the ubiquitous Amlawdd Wledig (which would make her Arthur’s maternal aunt), the wife of Geraint ab Erbin. Most pedigrees list Geraint as Arthur’s cousin, but none show him as the father of Gwalchmai. So already we have a problem.

  The later legends all make Gawain the eldest son of Lot. If we accept Gwyar as the proper name of Arthur’s sister (rather than Anna) and that she married Lot, the brother of Urien, this would make Gawain a prince of Rheged. In later legends, such as that recorded by William of Malmesbury, Gawain – here called Walwen – is remembered as the ruler of Walweitha (Galloway), the northern part of Rheged. That would make Gawain the cousin of Owain, and these two knights are frequently associated in the early romances. Gawain would have been active in the latter half of the sixth century, and thus a contemporary of Artúir of Dyfed. He may well have been involved in most of the major battles in the North, including Arderydd and Catraeth, though he is not mentioned in either account. Some of the later tales covered below associate Gawain with Cumbria, and this may be part of a long-standing tradition.

  William of Malmesbury mentions that the tomb of Walwen/ Gawain had been found on the seashore at Rhos in North Wales. It was fourteen feet long. The Stanzas of the Graves records Gwalchmai’s burial at Peryddon, which may be Periton, just south of Minehead in Somerset, but there is otherwise no association with Gwalchmai/Gawain in that area.

  In Culhwch and Olwen, Gwalchmai is described as “the best of footmen [meaning a good traveller or scout] and the best of knights”, and it is noted that he never returned home without achieving his quest. In later tales he is shown as courteous, friendly and chivalrous, always happy to let another take the credit for something he has achieved. He is also amazingly persuasive, and on many an occasion it is Gawain who will resolve a difficult problem. It is only in the late romances, such as the Prose Tristan and Malory, that Gawain’s good nature is changed for that of a surly, irascible lecher, and this only in comparison to Tristan or Lancelot. In almost all other tales, he is the greatest of knights and serves as a yardstick against which the achievements of others are measured.

  In many of the romances, Gawain’s strength varies with the time of day and doubles by noon. His nickname, Gwalltafwyn, which means “hair like reins”, is translated as “Golden Hair”. Both of these attributes show that the character of Gwalchmai is based on a solar deity. In a remarkable piece of etymological analysis explored in Celtic Myth and Arthurian Romance, Roger Sherman Loomis showed that the derivation of Gwalchmai can be traced back to the legendary Irish hero Cú Roí mac Dáiri, whom Loomis also believes was based on a solar deity. Cú Roí was a king of Munster, and in the story Fled Bricrenn (discussed further below) it is Cú Roí who is the challenger in the beheading game with which Gawain is associated. Loomis shows that Cú Roí, sometimes written as Curi, would have been translated into Welsh as Gwri. In the list of warriors at Arthur’s court in Culhwch and Olwen is one Gwrfan Wallt Afwyn, “Wild Hair”. Loomis shows that Gwrfan (which means “little man”) becomes in turn Gwrvan, Gorvan, Gauvain and Gawain, whilst the epithet becomes Gwalltafwyn, Gwalltavwin, Galvagin, Galvain, Gawain, and that Gwalltafwyn is the origin of Gwalchmai, usually interpreted as “Hawk of May”.

  This means that Gawain appears in Culhwch and Olwen as both Gwrfan and Gwalchmai, but Gwrfan was already a derivation of another hero. His name was corrupted from Gwri Wallt Eurin, who appears in Pwyll, Prince of Dyfed, the first story of the Mabinogion. In that story Pwyll has a son who is stolen the night after he is born. At the same time Teirnyon, lord of Gwent Ys Coed, who is guarding his horses, discovers a baby boy left in swaddling clothes at his door. He calls the boy Gwri Golden-Hair. The boy grows rapidly, twice as fast as any other child. After four years the truth of his birth is discovered, and he is renamed Pryderi by his mother Rhiannon. He later succeeds his father as Lord of Dyfed. The four branches of the Mabinogion each tell us something about Pryderi, including how he wanders throughout Logres whilst under an enchantment and is trapped in a magic castle until released by Manawydan, and finally how he is killed in single combat by Gwydion.

  There are various aspects of Gwri/Pryderi – such as his doubling in size, and, in the final tale in the Mabinogion, his refusal to sell any pigs until they have doubled in number – which are similar to Gawain’s waxing strength, and which seem to support Loomis’s assessment that they are one and the same. This means that Gawain is the same as the original, all-encompassing hero of the Mabinogion, the standard hero of Welsh legend. It explains why he appears in all the Arthurian stories, because he was the essential hero to resolve all quests. Regardless then of any historical basis to Gawain – and maybe Arthur of the Pennines did have a nephew called Gwrfan – the Gawain of the legend is drawn from an Irish sun deity via Pryderi.

  2. Tales of Gawain

  Although Gawain appears in every Arthurian story, he is not always the central character. He is usually the comparator against whom knights demonstrate their prowess. We might think of him as a universal standard of bravery. In the later Grail stories, he fails in the quest because he is too lustful, perhaps an indication that he was a primeval hero, and thus not suited to the Middle Ages. But in the early stories he goes a long way to succeeding, and it is possible that there were stories in which Gawain achieved the Grail, but which are now lost. Gawain was an ideal counterpart against which to measure the more spiritual attainment of Perceval, and it is unfortunate that in the later versions Gawain is supplanted by Bors.

  There are some stories, however, in which Gawain has the central role. These include two superb adventures, Diu Krône and The Rise of Gawain. He appears in Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History where he is portrayed both as the intermediary and the hothead, the two roles that epitomize him. Thankfully Gawain survived being pushed aside in the major Arthurian cycle of legends to rise again in what many regard as the finest of all Arthurian stories, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, a story which clearly takes us back to his mythic origins.

  LE BEL INCONNU (The Fair Unknown), Renaud de Beaujeu (French, late 1180s) 6,266 lines.

  One of the earliest Arthurian-related “fair unknown” motifs. This phrase is so often applied to male heroes that it could as well be translated “The Handsome Stranger”. In this case it is Guinglain, son of Gawain, who must free the daughter of the king of Wales, who has been transformed into a serpent and is being kept prisoner by two enchanters. He encounters many adversaries en route, but achieves his goal and his identity is revealed. The story was absorbed into the Arthurian saga via the first continuation of Chrétien’s Perceval, in which Guinglain becomes Lionel (not the same as Lancelot’s cousin), and was reworked by Robert de Blois with Beaudous (c1260s) and Thomas Chestre in Libeaus Desconus (c1380s). The best known “Fair Unknown” theme appears in Malory, with the story of Sir Gareth (“Beaumains”).

  A translation by Colleen Donagher is in Le Bel Inconnu edited by Karen Fresco (Garland, 1992). A narrative version is in The Unknown Arthur (Blandford, 1995) and The Book of Arthur (Vega, 2002), both by John Matthews

  LA MULE SANS FREIN (The Mule Without a Bridle), Paien des Maisières (French, late 1190s) 1,136 lines

  A short poem written in such a clipped form as to be almost a parody of the Arthurian conventions, though, as most of these had yet to be established, this may be seen as an attempt to cash in on Chrétien’s popularity by offering up other well-known but as yet undeveloped traditional material. The author’s name – which translates as ‘Pagan’ – may itself be a pun on Chrétien (Christian).

  A damsel comes to Arthur’s court to seek help in the recovery of a mule bridle which has been stolen. Kay sets off but fails. Gawain takes up the challenge, and is able to use the damsel’s magical mule. He o
vercomes a succession of challenges, including a revolving castle and a beheading game, before he triumphs.

  Part of this story reappears in more detail in Heinrich von dem Türlin’s Diu Krône.

  Included in Two Old French Gauvain Romances edited by R.C. Johnston and D.D.R. Owen (Barnes & Noble, 1973). An abridged version is in The Unknown Arthur (Blandford, 1995) and The Book of Arthur (Vega, 2002), both by John Matthews.

  LE CHEVALIER À L’EPÉE (The Knight with the Sword), anon. (possibly Paien des Maisières) (French, pre-1210) 6,182 lines.

  Gawain is lost in a forest and accepts the hospitality of a knight at a castle. The knight even allows Gawain to spend the night with his daughter. Gawain discovers there is an enchanted sword suspended over the bed, but although it proves a trifle inconvenient, Gawain survives the night. The next day the knight is surprised to find Gawain alive, and so believes he must be the best of knights, and offers him his daughter in marriage. They marry, but while Gawain is away fetching the lady’s hounds his bride is taken by another. Gawain challenges him, but although the bride chooses the other knight her hounds choose Gawain. Gawain defeats the suitor, and when his bride returns Gawain rebuffs her.

  A translation is in Three Arthurian Romances by Ross G. Arthur (Dent, 1996). An abridged version is in Secret Camelot (Blandford, 1997) and The Book of Arthur (Vega, 2002), both by John Matthews.

  LA VENGEANCE RAGUIDEL (The Avenging of Raguidel), Raoul (possibly but not conclusively Raoul de Houdenc) (French, 1210s), 6182 lines.

  A longer poem which has as its overall framing device the separate quests by Gawain and Yder to avenge the death of the knight Raguidel. The two knights are selected because only Gawain can draw the lance from the dead body, and only Yder can remove his rings. They undergo various unrelated adventures, including some which seem to be echoes of Le Chevalier à L’Epée, such as when Gawain rescues the damsel Ydain from one ravisher only to lose her to another. When Gawain kills that rival, he takes Ydain back but soon rejects her. Gawain also rejects La Pucele del Gaut Destroit (the Maid of the Narrow Wood), she intends to decapitate him, but fails to recognise him when he returns. In fact, quite a few people fail to recognise each other in what is clearly an amalgam of tales brought together for effect, but not properly integrated. Gawain kills Raguidel’s murderer Guengasoain, and Yder marries Guengasoain’s daughter.

  A translation is in Sir Gawain: Eleven Romances and Tales edited by Thomas Hahn (Kalamazoo, 1995), and extracts are in King Arthur in Legend and History edited by Richard White (Dent, 1997).

  LES ENFANCES GAUVAIN (The Youth of Gawain), anon. (French, c1220s) 712 lines survive.

  This is all that remains of a French romance on the youth of Gawain. Gauvain, the illegitimate child of Arthur’s sister Mor-cades and her page Lot, is given to a knight, Gauvain le Brun, to raise, but le Brun sets him adrift in a casket and he comes into the care of a fisherman who takes him to Rome. There he is educated, knighted by the pope and earns a reputation in tournaments. There the fragments end, but it is clearly part of an old tradition about Gawain because Geoffrey of Monmouth also refers to Gawain as having been sent as a child to Pope Sulpicius, who later dubbed him a knight (ix.11).

  DIU KRÔNE, Heinrich von dem Türlin (Austrian, c1230s) 30,041 lines

  A clever, creatively developed verse romance which brings much original thinking and treatment to various standard Arthurian themes. The poem is in two distinct halves, each made up of a series of interlinking adventures. But, as Heinrich intended by allusion in the title, which implies that each tale is like a jewel in a crown, all of the adventures come together to reflect a greater glory. That glory is essentially Arthur’s court, which, as the story steadily unveils, remains a rock around which chaos and uncertainty lurk but never prevail. At the outset, a bizarre dwarf arrives at court with the drinking horn which enables the chastity test. It reveals that Guenevere was betrothed to a former love, Gasoein, who abducts her, and both Arthur and Gawain battle for her recovery. Gawain is the real hero of the poem as, when not seeking Guenevere, he is involved in a quest against a giant, and becomes beguiled by an enchanter. After Guenevere’s recovery, he sets out on the Grail Quest after Parzival’s failure. Although this is modelled to a degree on Chrétien and Parzival, Heinrich brings his own original interpretation to events, and even has Gawain succeed in the Quest. This adventure is itself interlaced with other marvels and Gawain’s testing by Dame Fortune, all of which suggests that Heinrich is parodying the standard Arthurian motifs, whilst at the same time weaving a clever story. Were it not that Diu Krône does not take itself entirely seriously and was instantly overshadowed by the giant Vulgate Cycle, it might have been better remembered.

  A translation by J.W. Thomas is The Crown: A Tale of Sir Gawein and King Arthur’s Court (University of Nebraska Press, 1989). A short extract is in King Arthur in Legend and History edited by Richard White (Dent, 1997).

  LIVRE D’ARTUS, anon. (French, late 1230s)

  This is a variant prose but incomplete continuation of Robert de Boron’s Merlin. It clearly borrows from the other continuations, including the Vulgate and Huth Merlins, but adds its own interpretations, and substitutes Gawain for Lancelot as the main hero. Although it follows much of the plot of the Vulgate Lancelot, it weaves in several new stories and characters, but adds nothing to the overall concept. It has been suggested that this book may have had an earlier origin and been one of the archetypal texts behind the development of the Vulgate Lancelot, but most scholars no longer believe this.

  A translation is in Volume 7 of the 8-volume Vulgate Version of the Arthurian Romances by H. Oskar Sommer (Carnegie Institution, 1908–16).

  MÉRIADEUC, or LE CHEVALIER AUX DEUX EPÉES, anon. (French, late 1230s).

  Lore, Lady of Garadigan, acquires a sword and belt from the corpse of Bleheri and puts it on, but then finds she cannot remove it. All attempts by Arthur’s knights fail bar one, whose identity is not known, but who thereby wins a second sword. After freeing the Lady, the Nameless Knight departs but Lore proclaims she will marry no other man than him. Gawain is thus sent in search of the Nameless Knight. He undergoes various adventures, including undertaking single combat with the Nameless Knight without knowing who he is. At the end it is discovered that his name is Mériadeuc, and that he is the son of Bleheri, who had been killed unwittingly by Gawain. Mériadeuc had vowed to take his revenge upon his father’s killer, but in the end all are reconciled and Mériadeuc weds Lore.

  A translation is The Knight of The Two Swords by Ross G. Arthur and Noel L. Corbett (University of Florida Press, 1996).

  HUNBAUT, anon. (French, c1250s), 3,818 lines.

  A minor verse romance of passing interest. Gawain is sent by Arthur to demand the submission of the King of the Isles. He is accompanied by Hunbaut. The two deliver their message but on their return are separated. They each undertake various adventures, usually rescuing damsels, before both return to Arthur’s court. One episode involves the Beheading Test. The main interest of the story is how the chivalric and courtly demeanour of Hunbaut is contrasted against the coarser actions of Gawain.

  A French text of the poem but with an English introduction was published in Holland as The Romance of Hunbaut edited by Margaret Winters (E.J. Brill, 1984).

  L’ATRE PÉRILLEUX (The Perilous Cemetery), anon. (Norman French, c1250s), 6,676 lines.

  A highly derivative but no less entertaining romance with Gawain as the central character, although he remains nameless almost throughout. Arthur’s new cup-bearer (interestingly, female, a parallel with the Grail bearer) is abducted by Escanor, and Gawain sets out to rescue her after Kay fails. He meets three damsels who believe that Gawain had been killed by three knights. He remains incognito, and promises to avenge Gawain. Much of the story takes place in a graveyard under the power of a demon who has trapped a maiden in a tomb. Gawain succeeds in beheading the demon and rescuing the damsel. He eventually also rescues the cup-bearer and defeats Escanor. Woven throughout the sto
ry are various episodes about resurrection and the reunion of hostile partners, suggesting that the origins of this story were in a Celtic legend of rebirth.

  A translation by Ross G. Arthur is available in Three Arthurian Romances (Dent, 1996).

  DE ORTU WALUUANII (The Rise of Gawain), anon. (Anglo-Norman, late 1270s).

  An unusual merger of later Arthurian romance with earlier Gawain tradition. Gawain is the illegitimate son of Arthur’s sister Anna and King Lot, but is ignorant of his name and origins (as in the “Fair Unknown” motif). The infant is left in the care of merchants, along with a chest of treasure which also declares his true parentage, but he is stolen by another merchant, Viamandus, who raises him. Through his wiles, Viamundus secures the favours of the Roman emperor and becomes a senator, but dies suddenly when Gawain is twelve. Before his death, he reveals Gawain’s parentage to the emperor and pope. The emperor raises Gawain to a knight and he becomes known as the Knight of the Surcoat. He proves his military prowess in a war against the Persians in the Holy Land, an episode in which he also rescues the emperor’s niece, and in which there is a description of a sea battle, unusual in Arthurian romance. Gawain wishes to help Arthur in his battles against his enemies and the emperor agrees, hoping this may bring the island of Britain back under Roman rule. As he nears Caerleon, Gawain is challenged by Arthur whom he defeats, along with Kay. Arthur welcomes Gawain to his court where he learns, from the emperor’s message, that Gawain is his nephew. To prove Gawain’s valour, Arthur takes him on an expedition against the Picts. Gawain excels himself and Arthur accepts him as a knight, and reveals his nephew’s true parentage. The author of this story, who Loomis suspects was a cleric of English or Norman blood living in the Welsh marches, almost certainly also wrote the Historia Meriadoci (see Chapter 19).