Masaryk, Tomas, 7, 218
Maziarski, Jacek, 264
Mazowiecki, Tadeusz, 100, 193-194, 247, 263-265
McCarthyism, 4
Michnik, Adam, xv, 8, 70, 89, 110, 113-114, 123-124, 126-130, 145, 155-156, 160, 182, 196, 241, 264-265, 286
“New Evolutionism,” 125, 20
Mickiewicz, Adam, 109
Mielke, Erich, 166
Mihailovic, Kosta, 236
Mihajlovic, Draza, 15
Miklos, Laszlo, 261
Mikoyan, Anastas, 65
Milosz, Czeslaw, 11, 15, 33, 219
Minc, Hilary, 43, 62
Ministry of Internal Affairs (Romania), 271
Mittag, Gunther, 213
Mladenov, Petar, 221-222
Moczar, Mieczyslaw, 107, 109
Modzelewski, Karol, 108, 250
Modrow, Hans, 212, 214
Moldavia, 79
Molotov, Vyacheslav, 14, 58, 65
Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, 15
Montenegro, 236
Moravia, 7
Moscow Trust Group, 145
Moslem Party for Democratic Action (Bosnia and Herzegovina), 273
Nagy, Imre, 55, 57, 67-80, 86, 181, 187-188, 200, 202, 205
Najder, Zdislaw, 263
National Convention of Romania’s Civic Alliance, 271
National Democratic Party (Poland), 188
National Front (Czechoslovakia), 93, 102, 177
National Peasant Christian and Democratic Party (Romania), 236, 268
National Liberal Party (Romania) 236, 268
National Salvation Front (Romania), xvi, 234-236, 245, 267, 269-270, 272, 276
Navon, George, 272
Nazi, 109, 250, 253
de-Nazification, 254, 258
Neizvestny, Ernst, 85
Nemeth, Miklos, 68, 203, 205
Network of Free Initiatives (Hungary), 247
New Economic Mechanism (Hungary, Janos Kadar), 199
New Economic Policy (NEP), 180
New Forum, (GDR), 208, 214, 254-255
“New Old Parties” (Romania), 268
Nomenklatura, 117, 150
Bulgaria, 223
GDR, 24
Poland, 263
Romania, 225, 268, 270
SED, 213
Soviet, 100, 106, 183
Yugoslavia, 50
Northern Bukovina, 6, 15
Novotny, Antonin, 56, 79, 82, 90, 93-94
Nyers, Rezsö, 68, 202-204
Ochab, Edward, 65
Oder-Neisse frontier, 253
“Official society” (in Poland), 120121
Old Guard, Bolshevik, 59, 60, 229
Oni, 51
“Orange Alternative” (Poland), 171
Orban, Victor, 68
Orwellian newspeak, 103
Otok, Goli, 48
Ottoman Turks, 2, 7
Ottomanization, 145
Palach, Jan, 215
Partisan movement (Poland), 15
Patocka, Jan, 148
Patrascanu, Lucretiu, 29, 43, 82, 224
Pauker, Ana, 16, 45, 53
Petöfi Circle, 71-72, 78
Petrova, Dimitrina, 284
Pieck, Wilhelm, 53
Pirvulescu, Constantin, 116
Podgorny, Nikolai, 89
“Poem for Adults” (Adam Wazyk), 63-64
Popov, Dimitar, 257
Popovici, Vasile, 272
Poznan Uprising (1956), 65
Pozsgay, Imre, 68, 202, 203, 238
Prague Spring, 91, 94, 96, 99, 104, 113-114, 121, 176
effect on Poland, 114, 130, 133
rehabilitation of, 206-207
Praxis International, 86
Problems of Peace and Socialism, 79
Public Against Violence (Slovakia), 258
Purge trials, Moscow, 12, 28-29, 39-46
Rakosi, Matyas, 17, 53, 55, 57, 71-73
Rakowski, Mieczyslaw, 203, 246
Rajk, Laszlo, 29, 41-42, 73
Rankovic, Alexander, 17, 47
Reinhold, Otto, 210
Revai, Jozsef, 17, 53
ROAD (Citizen’s Movement-Democratic Action, Poland), 264-265, 266
Rokossovsky, Marshal Konstantin, 65
Roman, Petre, 235, 268
Rykov, Aleksei, 40, 60
Sakharov, Andrei, 179
Samizdat, 116, 133
Schabowski, Günther, 212
Schönhuber, Franz, 254
Schumann, Michael, 213
Scinteia, 230
Securitate, 233, 234, 268, 269, 272
Shakhnazarov, Georgy, 176
Shelepin, Aleksandr, 89
Shevardnadze, Eduard, 162, 187, 191, 282
Sik, Ota, 105
“Sinatra Doctrine,” 191, 216
Slansky, Rudolf, 17, 44-45, 90
Smrkovsky, Josef, 93, 102
Social Democratic Party (GDR), 254
Socialist realism, 33
Socialist Unity Party (GDR), 55, 162, 163, 164, 213, 254
Solidarity, 116, 118-120, 122-124, 128-133, 182, 185, 189, 192-194, 198, 263-264
Stalin, Josef, 12, 16, 19, 26-27, 39-41, 44-46, 54
Stalinism
and civil society, 171-172
and Eastern European communist parties, 20, 21, 28, 36
economic and political doctrine, 30, 31-32, 46
neo-Stalinism under Brezhnev, 90, 106, 115, 121
as opposition to Gorbachev, 190, 191
and terror versus opposition groups, 35
Suslov, Mikhail, 89
Svitak, Ivan, 281
Svoboda, Ludvik, 93, 101
Szklarska Poreba, Cominform founding conference at (1947), 22
Tamas, Gaspar Miklos, 203, 246
Tanase, Stelian, 284
Teheran, Conference of, 19
Templin, Wolfgang, 166
Third International, the (Comintern), 11, 15-16
Tienanmen Square, 208
Timisoara, 232, 270
Tisch, Harry, 166, 213
Tiso, Monsignor Josef, 14
Tito, Marshal (Josip Broz), 17, 27, 47-50, 78
Titoism
effect on other Eastern bloc states, 69
and Stalin’s purge trials, 40, 41
Tökes, Reverend Laszlo, 232
Toranska, Teresa, 51
Trianon, Treaty of, 9
Tsipko, Alexander, 184
Tucker, Robert C, 171
Tudjman, Franjo, 274
Tudoran, Dorin, 226
Turowicz, Jerzy, 264
Tygodnik Powszechny, 264
Tygodnik Solidarnosc, 264
Tyminski, Stanislaw, 265, 287
Ulbricht, Walter, 53, 78, 86, 162
Union of Democratic Forces (Bulgaria), 256
United Nations, 167, 185
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 167
Urbanek, Karel, 216
Vaculik, Ludvik, 91-92, 94, 104
Vajda, Mihaly, 115, 197
Vatra Romaneasca (Romanian Hearth), 236, 272
Velvet Prison, The (Miklos Haraszti), 149-152
VONS (Committee for the Defence of the Unjustly Persecuted, Czechoslovakia), 161
Vyshinski, Andrei, 24
Walesa, Lech, 129, 130-131, 193, 198, 263-266
Warsaw, Battle of, 8
Warsaw Pact (Warsaw Treaty Organization), 57-58, 75, 95, 97-100, 101, 103-104, 117, 189,217
Warsaw, University of, 109, 130
Warski, Alexander, 12
Wat, Alexander, 10-11
Wazyk, Adam (“Poem for Adults”), 63-64
Weber, Max, 118
Workers’ Defense Committee: see KOR
World Marxist Review, 186-187
Writers’ Union (Romania), 171
Wujek, Henryk, 263
Wyszynski, Stefan Cardinal, 109
Xoxe, Koci, 41
Yakovlev, Aleksander, 162, 187, 191, 282
Yalta conference, 19, 175
Yeltsin, Boris, 184
Yevtushenko, Yevg
eny, 85
Yugov, Anton, 85
Zamyatin, Yevgeny, 32
Zhdanov, Andrei, 22-25
Zhelev, Zhelyu, 221-222, 256
Zhivkov, Todor, 85, 208, 221-223, 228, 239, 282
Zinoviev, Alexander, 281
Zinovyev, Grigory, 40, 60
Zorin, Valerian, 26
Zoshchenko, Mikhail, 23
Printed in the United States
28157LVS00004B/46-132
1919-37: Central Europe and the Balkans between the World Wars.
After 1938, Josip Broz, a Croatian communist who became famous under the pseudonym Tito, was entrusted to lead the clandestine Yugoslav Communist Party. Although definitely full of love and admiration for Joseph Stalin, Tito wanted to become his counterpart in the Balkans—an ambition which eventually forced Stalin to excommunicate him from the world communist movement. He is seen here seated with Dr. Ivar Ribar, during activities of the Yugoslav communist resistance in the mountains of northern Montenegro in 1943. Eastfoto
A former railroad worker who had spent more than ten years in jails and labor camps, hardliner Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej led the Romanian Communist Party against anti-Stalinist elements from the late forties through the early sixties. His protegé, Nicolae Ceausescu, succeeded him upon his death in 1965. Here he is seen at left, being congratulated on the occasion of the adoption of the Romanian constitution. Eastfoto
Rudolf Slansky, second from the left, was appointed after World War II by Stalin as the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. He is seen here with fellow communist leaders Antonin Novotny and Machacova saluting the May Day parade. Slansky and other prominent communist leaders of Jewish origin were accused by Stalin of Zionist conspiracy and collusion with Western espionage networks. Slansky was the chief defendant during an October 1952 show trial and was hanged in December 1952. Eastfoto
In 1952, Ana Pauker, a veteran communist leader who long had been lionized by international communist propaganda as a prominent defender of the communist ideal, was purged from her position as Romania’s minister of foreign affairs and Politburo member and placed under house arrest. Silencing Pauker and others, Romania’s communist leader Gheorghiu-Dej capitalized on Stalin’s interest in eliminating Jewish leaders. She died in 1960, still faithful to the Soviet cause. Eastfoto
March 9, 1953. The coffin of Josef Vissarionovich Stalin being carried out of the house of trade unions in Moscow. Pallbearers, right to left, are G. M. Malenkov, General Vassily Stalin, V. M. Molotov, Marshal N. Bulganin, L. Kaganovich, and N. Shvernik. When Stalin died, his cadre of fiercely loyal supporters in Eastern Europe lost not only their leader, but their very means of political survival. Tass from Sovfoto
Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev confers with Yugoslav leader Marshal Tito during Tito’s visit to the USSR in 1956. During the de-Stalinization of the late fifties and early sixties, Khrushchev sought a rapprochement with Tito, who had consistently and effectively defied Stalin’s attempts to dominate the whole of Eastern Europe. Sovfoto
Wladyslaw Gomulka, General Secretary of the Polish Communist Party, is greeted at the border town of Biala Podalska on his return from the Polish—Soviet conference in Moscow in November 1956. Gomulka’s return to power that year, after the death of hardline Muscovite sympathizer Boleslaw Bierut, marked the revival of indigenous Polish communism, but certainly no break with the Soviets, whom Gomulka saw as a necessary ally in counteracting Germany’s inevitable influence on his country. Note the loaf of bread and salt he is receiving from admirers. This greeting has been a Polish symbol of hospitality since the 10th century. Eastfoto
Imre Nagy, President of the Council of Ministers, addressing a session of the Hungarian parliament beginning on January 21, 1954. Nagy replaced the diehard Stalinist Matyas Rakosi as prime minister upon Khrushchev’s ascendancy in 1953. Nagy attempted to lead Hungary out of the Warsaw Pact, provoking, on November 4, 1956, Soviet attacks on garrisons and military units loyal to the Nagy government. He was sentenced to death and executed in June 1958. Eastfoto
Abetted by prime minister Imre Nagy’s personal decision to embrace popular uprising, the Hungarian revolt of 1956 was the first post—World War II democratic revolution in Eastern Europe. It forged a model and a tradition that was to influence all the antitotalitarian social movements in the region for decades thereafter. Here residents of Budapest look at unburied bodies after the first day of fighting on October 24. Interfoto MTI + Hungary. Photo by Tamas Munk.
In January 1968, the plenum of the Czechoslovak Communist Party’s Central Committee relieved Antonin Novotny from his position as Party First Secretary and replaced him with the well-known reform-minded leader, Alexander Dubcek. Driven by a vision to liberalize Communist rule and pitted against Brezhnev and other leaders throughout the Warsaw Pact nations, Dubcek was taken hostage and deported during the Soviet crackdown against the reformist “Prague Spring” in August of 1968. Here he is seen outside the Central Committee building the same year. Eastfoto
Prague, 1968. Students and other activists take to the streets in protest in August 1968 against the Soviet and Warsaw Pact troops sent into Czechoslovakia to put down the popular reform movement. This generation, refusing to tolerate the corrupt practices of their rulers, proclaimed their commitment to humane socialism and announced their plans to form an organization free of party control. Eastfoto
Todor Zhivkov, seen here at center with Alexei N. Kosygin and Leonid I. Brezhnev, was the Eastern European leader most slavishly loyal to the Soviets. Zhivkov led Bulgaria from 1954 to November of 1989 when a coalition of refonri-minded apparatchiks led by Peter Mladenov and army generals headed by Minister of Defense Dobri Dzhurov forced him to resign. Sovfoto
Seen here in 1966, one year after assuming the leadership of the Romanian Communist Party from his mentor Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, is Nicolae Ceausescu. Ceausescu, who at first relaxed the grip of Stalinist domination in order to consolidate his power, ruled Romania with an iron hand until he was overthrown, tried, and executed with his wife, Elena, in December 1989. Eastfoto
Following the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968, playwright and human rights activist Vaclav Havel refused to emigrate and continued to fight in defense of civil rights. His essay “The Power of the Powerless,” published in a samizdat collection in 1979, offered a strategy of self-emancipation for individuals living in societies where the mechanisms of repression are both insidious and invisible. Now president of his country, he is seen here working in a brewery in the 1970s. Ivan Barta
The independent Polish labor union, Solidarity, opened a new chapter in the history of Eastern Europe by showing in 1980 that the cracks in the apparently monolithic totalitarian edifice could be exploited in an imaginative way. Lech Walesa, an electrician from the Lenin shipyard in Gdansk, its original leader—elected president of Poland in 1991—is seen here in 1989 celebrating after his reelection as president of Solidarity. Photo © Marek Swiezewski/Delta
Adam Michnik’s political career started during the student protest movement at the University of Warsaw in the 1960s, included participation on Lech Walesa’s team of advisors, and was punctuated by a series of prison terms. Michnik has distinguished himself as a dissident, philosopher, newspaper editor, and senator. East European Reporter
Among those involved in the grassroots activism directed against Bulgarian dictator Todor Zhivkov was Zhelyu Zhelev, a philosopher who had been expelled from the Communist Party in the 1960s because of his opposition to totalitarianism. In 1988 Zhelev had been a co-founder of the “Club for the Support of Glasnost and Perestroika,” and in December 1989 he was elected president of the coordinating committee of the union of democratic forces. East European Reporter
Among the leaders of the Free Democrats in Hungary is Janos Kis, a philosopher who has written a number of seminal essays on opposition strategies in Soviet-style societies. The Free Democrats, active in the reorganization of Hungary’s political system since 1989, are a politic
al party whose origins lie in the samizdat counterculture during the decades of social torpor and political apathy under Kadar. East European Reporter
On June 16, 1989, a solemn ceremony took place in Budapest. For more than 30 years, Imre Nagy and the other martyrs of the 1956 revolution had been besmirched as fomenters of counterrevolutionary conspiracy. Now, the leaders of Hungary’s 1956 uprising were finally granted a proper burial. Nagy Piroska
Freedom and democracy came more quickly to Poland than to any other Eastern European country. Seen here are some campaign posters outside Solidarity’s Warsaw headquarters in June of 1989 just as the first round of national elections was getting underway. Poles overwhelmingly supported Solidarity candidates and denied even unopposed communist candidates victory. East European Reporter
In August 1989 a new threshold was passed in Poland when Communist leader General Jaruzelski appointed Tadeusz Mazowiecki, a prominent Catholic intellectual and a key Solidarity advisor, as the country’s new prime minister. It is known that the decision had been preceded by a phone call from Mikhail Gorbachev to the communist leader Mieczyslaw Rakowski, in which Moscow presumably expressed its readiness to accept a Solidarity-run coalition government, with communists maintaining a number of key ministries (defense and security police). Juliusz Sokolowski/Delta
On November 29, 1989, the Czechoslovak federal assembly abolished the Constitutional clauses guaranteeing the Communist Party’s leading role. The way was thus open for the complete disbandment of the artificial power structure imposed by Soviet tanks in August 1968. Vaclav Havel was elected Czechoslovakia’s president on December 29. On the right, he is seen with Alexander Dubcek, upon hearing of the resignation of the Politburo. East European Reporter
The Romanian Revolution began in the city of Timisoara, sparked by the courage of one man, the Reverend Laszlo Tökes. On December 15,1989, when secret police tried to evict Tokes forcibly from his parish house, thousands of people formed a human chain and unleashed a massive anti-Ceausescu demonstration. By Christmas Day, the Communist Party had been swept out of office and Nicolae and Elena Ceausescu tried and executed. Pictured here are scenes from the revolution: (Top) Tanks stand outside the Central University in Bucharest. (Above) Democrats remove the letters from a plaque on a government office building. Radek Sikorski (both photos)
Reinventing Politics Page 44