1 Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, “The ‘Cowardly’ Executioner: On Disobedience in the SS,” Patterns of Prejudice (April 1985): 19-32.
2 Michael T. Kaufman, “Doing Their Part: Looking for the Line Between Patriotism and Guilt,” New York Times, April 11, 1999, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9506E0DB1038F932A25757C0A96F958260&scp =2&sq=goldhagen+serbs.
3 Brent Beardsley, Frontline: Ghosts of Rwanda, www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/ghosts/interviews/beardsley.html.
4 Scott Straus, “How Many Perpetrators Were There in the Rwandan Genocide? An Estimate,” Journal of Genocide Research (March 2004): 93.
5 Rwandan Minister of Justice Tharcisse Karugarama, author interview, Kigali, Rwanda, May 9, 2008.
6 Quoted in Peter Balakian: The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America’s Response (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), p. 236.
7 Quoted in Vahakn Dadrian, “The Role of the Special Organisation in the Armenian Genocide during the First World War,” in Panikos Panayi, ed., Minorities in Wartime: National and Racial Groupings in Europe, North America and Australia during the Two World Wars (Oxford, UK: Berg, 1993), p. 57.
8 Quoted in African Rights, Rwanda: Death, Despair and Defiance (London: African Rights, 1994), p. 89.
9 Elie Ngarambe, author interview, Kigali, Rwanda, May 8, 2008.
10 Jean Pierre Nkuranga, author interview, Kigali, Rwanda, May 6-7, 2008.
11 Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, Hitler’s Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust (New York: Knopf, 1996), pp. 212-214.
12 Ibid., pp. 344-363, quotation on p. 361.
13 Jean-Paul Nyirindekwe, executive secretariat of TIG, personal communication with author, Kigali, Rwanda, May 7, 2008.
14 Quoted in Jean Hatzfeld, Machete Season: The Killers in Rwanda Speak (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005), pp. 110-112.
15 Armen Hairapetian, “‘Race Problems’ and the Armenian Genocide: The State Department File,” Armenian Review (Spring 1984): 44-45, 49, 50, 58.
16 Quoted in Vahakn N. Dadrian, The History of the Armenian Genocide: Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus, 3rd rev. ed. (Providence, RI: Berghahn Books, 1997), p. 243.
17 Youkimny Chan, “One Spoon of Rice,” in Children of Cambodia’s Killing Fields: Memoirs by Survivors, compiled by Dith Pran, Kim DePaul, ed. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997), pp. 20-21.
18 Edward Kissi, Revolution and Genocide in Ethiopia and Cambodia (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2006), p. 127.
19 Quoted in Aleksandr M. Nekrich, The Punished Peoples: The Deportation and Fate of Soviet Minorities at the End of the Second World War (New York: Norton, 1978), p. 111.
20 Seyss-Inquart report, November 20, 1939, Nur. Doc. 2278-PS in Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal, Nuremberg, 14 November 1945-1 October 1946 (Nuremberg, Germany, 1947), vol. 30, p. 95.
21 This reproduces a passage from Goldhagen, Hitler’s Willing Executioners, p. 146.
22 Dawit Wolde Giorgis, Red Tears: War, Famine and Revolution in Ethiopia (Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 1989), p. 301.
23 See Dadrian, The History of the Armenian Genocide, pp. 236-243.
24 Kissi, Revolution and Genocide in Ethiopia and Cambodia, p. 121.
25 “Conclusions and Recommendations,” Guatemala: Memory of Silence, Report of the Commission for Historical Clarification, paragraph 42, http://shr.aaas.org/guatemala/ceh/report/english/toc.html.
26 Norman M. Naimark, Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), pp. 129-130.
27 Quoted in Robert Conquest, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1979), p. 134.
28 Quoted in Conquest, Kolyma, p.128.
29 Falk Pingel, Häftlinge unter SS-Herrschaft: Widerstand, Selbstbehauptung und Vernichtung im Konzentrationslager (Hamburg, Germany: Hoffmann und Campe, 1978), p. 186.
30 R. J. Rummel, China’s Bloody Century: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900 (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1991), pp. 229-232.
31 The camp figures come from Gudrun Schwarz, Die nationalsozialistischen Lager (Frankfurt, Germany: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1990), pp. 72 and 222.
32 Quoted in Liisa H. Malkki, Purity and Exile: Violence, Memory, and National Cosmology Among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), pp. 89-90.
33 Chhun Von, author interview, April 11, 2008, Lowell, Massachusetts. Many Khmer Rouge believed human bladders had great medicinal powers.
34 Quoted in Ben Kiernan, “The Cambodian Genocide—1975-1979,” in Samuel Totten, William S. Parsons, and Israel W. Charny, eds., Genocide in the Twentieth Century: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts (New York: Garland, 1995), p. 474.
35 James Ron, “Territoriality and Plausible Deniability: Serbian Paramilitaries in the Bosnian War,” in Bruce B. Campbell and Arthur D. Brenner, eds., Death Squads in Global Perspective: Murder with Deniability (New York: St. Martin’s, 2000), pp. 303-304.
36 John Hughes, Indonesian Upheaval (New York: David McKay, 1967), p. 181.
37 Quoted in Hughes, Indonesian Upheaval, p. 160.
38 Quoted in Jean Hatzfeld, Machete Season: The Killers in Rwanda Speak (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005), p. 112.
39 Quoted in Malkki, Purity and Exile, p. 98.
40 Hans Frank, Das Diensttagebuch des deutschen Generalgouverneurs in Polen, 1939-1945, ed. by Werner Präg and Wolfgang Jacobmeyer (Stuttgart, Germany: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1975), entry of May 30, 1940, p. 212.
41 See Michael A. Sells, “Kosovo Mythology and the Bosnian Genocide,” in Omer Bartov and Phyllis Mack, eds., In God’s Name: Genocide and Religion in the Twentieth Century (New York: Berghahn, 2001), pp. 187-188.
42 Timothy Longman, “Christian Churches and Genocide in Rwanda,” in Bartov and Mack, eds., In God’s Name, p. 156.
43 Michael A. Sells, The Bridge Betrayed: Religion and Genocide in Bosnia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), pp. 1-2.
44 Mary Craig, Tears of Blood: A Cry for Tibet (London: HarperCollins, 1992), pp. 123-124.
45 Kiernan, “The Cambodian Genocide—1975-1979,”, p. 436.
46 Dawa Norbu, Red Star Over Tibet (New Delhi, India: Sterling, 1987), p. 220.
CHAPTER FIVE
1 Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, Hitler’s Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust (New York: Knopf, 1996), pp. 379-381.
2 Mahmood Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001), p. 224.
3 See Goldhagen, Hitler’s Willing Executioners, pp. 116-120, 3-4, and 381-383.
4 For a discussion of the German scholars’ tainted pasts and influences, see Götz Aly, “Willige Historiker—Bemerkung in eigener Sache” in Macht— Geist—Wahn: Kontinuitäten deutschen Denkens (Berlin, Germany: Argon, 1997), pp. 153-83.
5 See Christopher R. Browning, Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland (New York: HarperCollins, 1992); for a critique, see Daniel Jonah Goldhagen’s review of Ordinary Men by Christopher R. Browning, New Republic 207, nos. 3 and 4 (1992): 49-52; for a subsequent exchange see Christopher R. Browning, “Ordinary Germans or Ordinary Men? A Reply to the Critics,” and Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, “Ordinary Men or Ordinary Germans?” in Michael Berenbaum and Abraham J. Peck, eds., The Holocaust and History: The Known, the Unknown, the Disputed, and the Reexamined (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998), pp. 252-265 and 301-307.
6 Jacob Robinson, And the Crooked Shall Be Made Straight: The Eichmann Trial, the Jewish Catastrophe, and Hannah Arendt’s Narrative (New York: Macmillan, 1965), pp. 34 and 37.
7 Hans Safrian, Eichmann und seine Gehilfen (Frankfurt, Germany: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1995), pp. 15-16.
8 The Good Man of Nanking: The Diaries of John Rabe, ed. by Erwin Wickert (New York: Knopf, 1998), p. 101.
9 Quoted i
n Roy Gutman, “The Rapes of Bosnia,” A Witness to Genocide: The 1993 Pulitzer Prize-Winning Dispatches on the “Ethnic Cleansing” of Bosnia (New York: Macmillan, 1993), p. 76.
10 Quoted in African Rights, Rwanda: Death, Despair and Defiance (London: African Rights, 1994), p. 219.
11 Guatemala: Memory of Silence, Report of the Commission for Historical Clarification, “Conclusions and Recommendations,” paragraph 87, http://shr.aaas.org/guatemala/ceh/report/english/toc.html.
12 Goldhagen, Hitler’s Willing Executioners, p. 234.
13 See Joel D. Aberbach, Robert D. Putnam, and Bert A. Rockman, Bureaucrats and Politicians in Western Democracies (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981).
14 Felicien Sekamandwa, author interview, Kigali, Rwanda, May 7, 2008; Elie Ngarambe, author interview, Kigali, Rwanda, May 7, 2008; and others.
15 Quoted in Jean Hatzfeld, Machete Season: The Killers in Rwanda Speak (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005), p. 11.
16 Quoted in Jean Hatzfeld, Into the Quick of Life: The Rwandan Genocide—The Survivors Speak (London: Serpent’s Tail, 2005), p. 137.
17 Ibid., p. 146.
18 Quoted in Charles K. Mironko, “Ibitero: Means and Motive in the Rwandan Genocide,” in Susan E. Cook, ed., Genocide in Cambodia and Rwanda: New Perspectives (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2006), p. 182.
19 Quoted in Hatzfeld, Machete Season, p. 12.
20 Henry Orenstein, I Shall Live: Surviving Against All Odds, 1939-1945 (New York: Touchstone, 1989), pp. 86-87.
21 Esperance Nyirarugira, Concessa Kayiraba, and Veronique Mukasinafi, author interview, Rwamagana District, Eastern Province, Rwanda, May 6, 2008.
22 Julian Sher and Benedict Carey, “Debate on Child Pornography’s Link to Molesting,” New York Times, July 19, 2007. Presumably, these perpetrators would have hidden still more had they been able to, since many of the seventy-five victims known at the time of sentencing and the 26 percent of the men known to have sexually abused them were probably not known by the legal authorities from perpetrators’ confessions but from victims’ or their families’ accusations.
23 Sabaheta Fejzíc, author interview, Srebrenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina, June 10, 2008.
24 Emmanuel Gatali, author interview, Kigali, Rwanda, May 10, 2008.
25 Mukasinafi, author interview.
26 This is what Browning does in Ordinary Men, which treats but one single unit of German perpetrators, and Scott Straus does in The Order of Genocide, a study of a sampling of Rwandan perpetrators that is unsalvageable because its findings and conclusions are much more an artifact of his flawed methodology and data set than they are about the reality of the Hutu’s slaughter of Tutsi. When Straus (mimicking Browning) justifies his methodology of essentially taking the perpetrators’ self-exonerating claims both about the extent of their killing and about their reasons for killing at face value, he pens a sentence that reveals his effective repudiation of any realistic, critical stance toward their self-exonerations. When he asked the perpetrators to tell him how many people they themselves killed, Straus informs us, “most respondents appeared not to be deliberately lying” (p. 111). So Straus’ standard for skepticism about the self-exonerations of people convicted of perpetrating mass murder is: They must appear to Straus himself in a formal interview setting about their crimes to be deliberately lying. How many people in general, let alone those practiced in the art of trying to get themselves exonerated from, or as little punishment as possible for, the worst crimes, lie in a transparently obvious and deliberate manner? And lie so transparently and obviously that Straus, who does not speak their language, Kinyarwanda, can tell! Does Straus mean that the more than 70 percent who flat-out denied direct culpability in killing anyone failed to wink at him when they simply said, I killed no one, and therefore must have been telling the truth?
27 This in part reproduces a section from Goldhagen, Hitler’s Willing Executioners, pp. 467-468.
28 Quoted in Hatzfeld, Machete Season, pp. 120 and 194.
29 Quoted in Goldhagen, Hitler’s Willing Executioners, pp. 393-394.
30 Marcel Munyabugingo, author interview, Kigali, Rwanda, May 7, 2008.
31 Quoted in Hatzfeld, Machete Season, pp. 163-164.
32 Report on the Natives of South-West Africa and Their Treatment by Germany (presented to both Houses of Parliament by Command of His Majesty, August 1918) (London: H. M. Stationery Office, 1918), pp. 64-65.
33 Ibid., p. 102.
34 Quoted in Matthias Bjørnlund, “‘A Fate Worse Than Dying’: Sexual Violence during the Armenian Genocide,” in Dagmar Herzog, ed., Brutality and Desire: War and Sexuality in Europe’s Twentieth Century (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), p. 22.
35 “From the War Diary of Blutordenstraeger Felix Landau,” in Ernst Klee, Willi Dressen, and Volker Riess, eds., “The Good Old Days”: The Holocaust as Seen by Its Perpetrators and Bystanders (Old Saybrook, CT: Konecky & Konecky, 1991), p. 91.
36 Quoted in Goldhagen, Hitler’s Willing Executioners, pp. 219-220.
37 Quoted in Caroline Elkins, Imperial Reckoning: The Untold Story of Britain’s Gulag in Kenya (New York: Henry Holt, 2005), p. 257.
38 Robert Cribb, “The Indonesian Massacres,” in Samuel Totten, William S. Parsons, and Israel W. Charny, eds., Genocide in the Twentieth Century: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts (New York: Garland, 1995), pp. 319-320.
39 Quoted in Amita Malik, The Year of the Vulture (New Delhi, India: Orient Longman, 1972), pp. 102-103.
40 Quoted in Liisa H. Malkki, Purity and Exile: Violence, Memory, and National Cosmology Among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), p. 95.
41 Sophea Mouth, “Imprinting Compassion,” in Kim DePaul, ed., Children of Cambodia’s Killing Fields: Memoirs by Survivors, compiled by Dith Pran (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997), pp. 179-180.
42 Quoted in Alexander Laban Hinton, Why Did They Kill? Cambodia in the Shadow of Genocide (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), p. 266.
43 Tomasa Osorio Chen, author interview, Panchook, Guatemala, June 9, 2008.
44 Alexandra Stiglmayer, “The Rapes in Bosnia-Herzegovina,” in Alexandra Stiglmayer, ed., Mass Rape: The War Against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), pp. 120-121.
45 Quoted in Hatzfeld, Machete Season, p. 132.
46 Quoted in African Rights, Rwanda, p. 347.
47 Quoted in Amnesty International Report, “Darfur: Rape as a Weapon of War: Sexual Violence and Its Consequences,” July 19, 2004, www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/AFR54/076/2004/en.
48 Quoted in Goldhagen, Hitler’s Willing Executioners, pp. 280-281. Erwin Graffman is a pseudonym, as mandated by German law.
49 Report on the Natives of South-West Africa and Their Treatment by Germany, pp. 66-67.
50 Quoted in Elkins, Imperial Reckoning, p. 252.
51 Jesús Tecú Osorio, author interview, Rabinal, Guatemala, June 8, 2008.
52 Rithy Uong, author interview, Lowell, Massachusetts, April 11, 2008.
53 Alisa Muratčauš, author interview, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, July 12, 2008.
54 Shattered Lives: Sexual Violence During the Rwandan Genocide and Its Aftermath (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1996), p. 52.
55 Ngarambe, author interview.
56 Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F. Cook, Japan at War: An Oral History (New York: New Press, 1992), p. 5.
57 See Goldhagen, Hitler’s Willing Executioners, pp. 245-247.
58 See Klaus-Michael Mallmann, Volker Rieß, and Wolfram Pyta, eds., Deutscher Osten 1939-1945: Der Weltanschauungskrieg in Photos und Texten (Darmstadt, Germany: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2003), pp. 31 and 42.
59 Alison Des Forges, Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda (Human Rights Watch, 1999), www.hrw.org/en/reports/1999/03/01/leave-none-tell-story .
60 Quoted in Hatzfeld, Machete Season, pp. 94-95.
61 See Goldhagen, Hitler’s Willing Ex
ecutioners, pp. 451-453.
62 Michael A. Sells, “Kosovo Mythology and the Bosnian Genocide,” in Omer Bartov and Phyllis Mack, In God’s Name: Genocide and Religion in the Twentieth Century (New York: Berghahn, 2001), p. 190.
63 It is no coincidence that writers such as Browning, Ordinary Men, and Straus, The Order of Genocide, who choose to present the perpetrators’ self-exonerations at face value also systematically downplay or ignore the perpetrators’ cruelty and other acts that degraded the victims, as well as the voluminous victim testimony that tells a far more complete story of the multiple brutal and cruel ways the perpetrators generally treated them.
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