A Short History of the Mughal Empire (I.B.Tauris Short Histories)

by Fisher, H, Michael

  1 Dughlat: Tarikh, p. 283b.

  2 Gulbadan: History; Lal: Domesticity; Mukhia: Mughals, pp. 113–55.

  3 Moin: ‘Peering.’

  4 Abu-l-Fazl: Akbar, vol. 1, pp. 314, 644–51.

  5 Khwandamir: Qanun.

  6 Ishwari Prasad: Life, pp. 52–3.

  7 Babur: Baburnama, p. 362.

  8 Desoulières: ‘Mughal.’

  9 Dughlat: Tarikh, p. 284a.

  10 Aftabachi: Tazkirat, p. 81.

  11 Ibid.; Ishwari Prasad: Life, p. 177.

  12 Dughlat: Tarikh, pp. 286b–287b.

  13 Ibid., pp. 283b–284a; Mushtaqi: Waq‘iat, p. 73.

  14 Jahangir: Tuzuk, vol. 2, pp. 62–3.

  15 Abbas Khan: Tarikh, pp. 331–2; Babur: Baburnama, pp. 427, 430.

  16 Abbas Khan: Tarikh, p. 330; Ahmad: Tabaqat, vol. 2, pp. 150–52.

  17 Husain: Nobility, pp. 11–44; Sukumar Roy: Bairam.

  18 Gulbadan: History, pp. 149–51.

  19 Bayat: Tarikh, pp. 50–51; Gulbadan: History, p. 168; Monshi: History, vol. 1, p. 162.

  20 Monshi: History, vol. 1, p. 163.

  21 Sukumar Roy: Humayun.

  22 Abbas Khan: Tarikh; Kolff: Naukar.

  23 Abu-l-Fazl: Akbar, vol. 1, pp. 642–4.

  Chapter 4: Emperor Akbar Makes Himself the Center of the Mughal Empire

  1 Jahangir: Tuzuk, vol. 1, pp. 33–4.

  2 Abu-l-Fazl: Akbar, vol. 2, pp. 70–72.

  3 Iqtidar Alam Khan: ‘Nobility,’ Appendix I; Naqvi: Urbanisation, pp. 160–86.

  4 Reis: Travels, pp. 55–7.

  5 Faruqui: ‘Forgotten.’

  6 Abu al-Fazl: Ain, vol. 3, p. 383.

  7 Bayat: Tarikh, vol. 2, pp. 95–101.

  8 Ahmad: Tabaqat, pp. 198, 204; Vincent Smith: ‘Death.’

  9 Vincent Smith: ‘Death.’

  10 Siddiqui: Mughal, pp. 90–105.

  11 Nizami: Akbar, p. 185; O’Hanlon: ‘Kingdom’; Pandian: ‘Predatory.’

  12 Abu-l-Fazl: Akbar, vol. 2, pp. 253–4.

  13 Husain: Nobility, Chapter 2.

  14 Badauni: Muntakhab, vol. 2, pp. 29–30.

  15 Ibn Hasan: Central, pp. 350–51; Gauri Sharma: Prime, pp. 30–33.

  16 Abu-l-Fazl: Akbar, vol. 2, p. 307.

  17 Taft: ‘Honor’; Ziegler: ‘Marvari,’ ‘Some.’

  18 Abu-l-Fazl: Akbar, vol. 2, p. 242.

  19 Badauni: Muntakhab, vol. 2, p. 352.

  20 Ahsan Raza Khan: Chieftains, p. 207.

  21 Busch: ‘Portrait,’ p. 294. See also Pauwels: ‘Saint’; Talbot: ‘Becoming,’ ‘Justifying’; Vanina: ‘Madhavanala.’

  22 Busch: ‘Portrait,’ p. 310.

  23 Asher: ‘Architecture’; Ziegler: ‘Some.’

  24 Taft: ‘Honor,’ pp. 223, 235n6.

  25 Jahangir: Tuzuk, vol. 2, p. 181.

  26 Bilgrami: ‘Mughal’; Zaidi: ‘Akbar’s.’

  Chapter 5: Emperor Akbar and His Core Courtiers Build the Mughal Administration and Army

  1 Abu-l-Fazl: Akbar, vol. 2, p. 198.

  2 Fox: Kin; Grover: Collected; S. Nurul Hasan: ‘Position.’

  3 Naqvi: Urbanisation, pp. 160–86.

  4 Badaoni: Muntakhab, vol. 2, pp. 193–4. See also Ahmad: Tabaqat, p. 456; Qandhari: Tarikh, p. 231; Siddiqi: ‘Classification.’

  5 Banarsidasa: Ardhakathanaka, pp. 48, 177n.

  6 Shivram: Jagirdars, p. 15.

  7 Moosvi: ‘Share,’ ‘Zamindars’’; Siddiqi: ‘Classification’; Wee: ‘Semi-Imperial.’

  8 Bayly: Empire, Chapter 1.

  9 Raychaudhuri: Bengal; Siddiqi: ‘Faujdar’.

  10 Badaoni: Muntakhab, vol. 2, p. 388.

  11 Richards: Document.

  12 Alam: Languages; Guha: ‘Serving.’

  13 Richards: Mughal Empire, p. 284.

  14 Blake: ‘Patrimonial.’ C.f., Subrahmanyam: ‘Mughal.’

  15 Gordon: Robes and; Robes of; O’Hanlon: ‘Manliness.’

  16 Shivram: Jagirdars, pp. 57–8.

  17 Badaoni: Muntakhab, vol. 2, pp. 190–91.

  18 Koch: Complete; Dale: Muslim.

  19 Abu al-Fazl: Ain, vol. 3, p. 399.

  20 Abu-l-Fazl, Akbar, vol. 2, p. 282.

  21 Sinha: Raja.

  22 Kumudrajan Das: Raja.

  23 Chandra: ‘Some’; Subrahmanyam: ‘Mughal’; Subrahmanyam and Bayly: ‘Portfolio.’

  24 Badaoni: Muntakhab, vol. 2, p. 65.

  25 Banarsidasa: Ardhakathanaka, pp. 7–10.

  26 Satyal: Mughal, pp. 69–70.

  Chapter 6: Emperor Akbar’s Courts, Ideologies, and Wars, by Main Capital

  1 Monserrate: Commentary, p. 132.

  2 Ansari: Social; Blake: Shahjahanabad; Rezavi: Fatehpur, pp. 29ff.

  3 Hodges: Travels, facing p. 114.

  4 Naqvi: Urbanisation, pp. 160–86, 286.

  5 Delvoye: ‘Image’; Wade: Imaging.

  6 Abu-l-Fazl: Akbar, vol. 2, p. 445.

  7 Beach: Early; Seyller: ‘Workshop’; Verma: Aspects, vol. 1, pp. 50ff.

  8 Badauni: Muntakhab, vol. 2, p. 165.

  9 Brand and Lowry: Fatehpur; Nath: Fatehpur; Rezavi: Fatehpur; Rizvi: Fathpur; D.V. Sharma: Archaeology.

  10 Badauni: Muntakhab, vol. 2, pp. 168–9.

  11 Havell: Handbook, p. 156.

  12 Farooqi: ‘Moguls,’ ‘Six.’

  13 Edmund Smith: Moghul, p. 112.

  14 Haidar: ‘Prices,’ pp. 1–3.

  15 Abu al-Fazl: Ain, vol. 1, p. 165.

  16 Ibid., p. 242.

  17 Ahmad: Tabaqat, vol. 3, pp. 470–72; Badauni: Muntakhab, vol. 2, pp. 200–204; Rezavi: ‘Religious.’

  18 Badauni: Muntakhab, vol. 2, pp. 260–61. C.f., Ahmad: Tabaqat, vol. 3, pp. 511–12; Qandhari: Tarikh, p. 272.

  19 Iqtidar Alam Khan: ‘Akbar’s’; O’Hanlon: ‘Kingdom.’

  20 Ahmad: Tabaqat, vol. 3, pp. 520–21; Abu-l-Fazl: Akbar, vol. 3, pp. 395–6.

  21 Wright: Catalogue, Plate IV, no. 318.

  22 Badauni: Muntakhab, vol. 2, pp. 276–7.

  23 Ahmad: Tabaqat, vol. 3, pp. 523–4; Badauni: Muntakhab, vol. 2, pp. 279–80.

  24 Blockmann, in Abul al-Fazl: Ain, vol. 1, pp. 168–87.

  25 Ibn Hasan: Central; S. Nurul Hasan: Religion; Moin: Millennial.

  26 Athar Ali: Apparatus; Naqvi: Urbanisation, Appendices A–B.

  27 Mehta: ‘Akbar’; Pollock: ‘New’; Pushpa Prasad: ‘Akbar.’

  28 Abu al-Fazl: Ain, vol. 3, pp. 394–6; Iqtidar Alam Khan: ‘Mughal.’

  29 Richards: Mughal Empire, p. 47.

  30 Alam and Subrahmanyam: ‘Frank,’ p. 463; Maclagan: Jesuits, p. 24; Monserrate: Commentary, p. 2.

  31 Monserrate: Commentary, p. 28.

  32 Koch: ‘Symbolic’; Monserrate: Commentary, p. 126.

  33 Abu al-Fazl: Ain, vol. 3, p. 42.

  34 Carvalho: Mir‘at.

  35 Abu’l Fazl: Makatabat, pp. 8–11; Maclagan: Jesuits, p. 37; Monserrate: Commentary, pp. 159, 163–4.

  36 Digby: ‘Bayazid’; Farooqi: ‘Moguls’; Monserrate: Commentary, pp. 166–90.

  37 Abu al-Fazl: Ain, vol. 3, p. 394; Badauni: Muntakhab, vol. 2, p. 296.

  38 Anooshahr: ‘Dialogism’; Moin: Millennial, pp. 493–526.

  39 Abu’l-Fazl: Makatabat, pp. 33–6; Badauni: Muntakhab, vol. 2, p. 319.

  40 Bilgrami: ‘Mughal’; Zaidi: ‘Akbar’s.’

  41 Asher: Architecture; Bailey: ‘Lahore’; Latif: Lahore.

  42 Bailey: ‘Indian’; Seyller: ‘Workshop.’

  43 Truschke: ‘Mughal.’

  44 Badauni: Muntakhab, vol. 2, pp. 413–14.

  45 Kalhana: Rajatarangini.

  46 Ernst: ‘Muslim,’ pp. 180–82.

  47 Busch: ‘Hidden.’

  48 Chandra et al: ‘Akbar.’

  49 Badauni: Muntakhab, vol. 2, pp. 335–6.

  50 Steingass: Comprehensive, s.v. Tauhid.

  51 Iqtidar Alam Khan: ‘Akbar’s’; O’Hanlon: ‘Kingdom.’

  52 Badauni: Muntakhab, vol. 2, p. 336; Richards: Mughal Empire, p. 48;
Rizvi: Religious.

  53 Badauni: Muntakhab, vol. 2, p. 299.

  54 Ibid., vol. 2, p. 375.

  55 Ibid., vol. 2, p. 336.

  56 Alvi: Perspectives, p. 13.

  57 Moosvi: Economy, pp. 214–19; Athar Ali: Apparatus, p. xiii.

  58 Moosvi: ‘Estimate.’

  59 Alam and Subrahmanyam: ‘Deccan’; M. Siraj Anwar: Mughals; Firishta: History, vol. 1, p. 385.

  60 Eaton: Social, pp. 231–81; Shyam: Life; Tamaskar: Life.

  61 Banarsidasa: Ardhakathanaka, pp. 38–40.

  Chapter 7: Emperor Jahangir and the Efflorescence of the Imperial Court, 1605–27

  1 Jahangir: Tuzuk, vol. 1, p. 68.

  2 Badauni: Muntakhab, vol. 2, p. 391.

  3 Banarsidasa: Ardhakathanaka, pp. 18–21.

  4 Badauni: Muntakhab, vol. 2, p. 390.

  5 Beveridge: ‘Sultan’; Faruqui: Princes, pp. 30–31.

  6 Beach: Mughal, pp. 70–78; Faruqui: Princes, pp. 158–62; Seyller: ‘Workshop’; Verma: Aspects, vol. 1, pp. 49–50.

  7 Jahangir: Tuzuk, vol. 1, pp. 24–5.

  8 Ibid., pp. 65ff.

  9 Urwick: Indian, p. 166.

  10 Fenech: ‘Martyrdom.’

  11 Jahangir: Tuzuk, vol. 1, p. 22.

  12 Moosvi: Economy, pp. 195–200.

  13 Athar Ali: Apparatus, p. xiv.

  14 Shivram: Jagirdars, p. 15.

  15 Siddiqi: Land.

  16 Lefevre: ‘Recovering.’

  17 Jahangir: Tuzuk, vol. 2, pp. 6–7.

  18 Wright: Catalogue, Plate VI, 1618–23 CE.

  19 Ibid., vol. 1, 306–10.

  20 Mukhia: Mughals, pp. 72–111; Najm-i Saini: Advice.

  21 Lefevre: ‘Recovering,’ p. 461.

  22 Jahangir: Tuzuk, vol. 1, pp. 306–10.

  23 Beach: Mughal, pp. 78–110.

  24 Seyller: ‘Workshop,’ p. 24.

  25 Jahangir: Tuzuk, vol. 2, pp. 20–21.

  26 Roe: Embassy, vol. 1, pp. 224–6.

  27 Seyller: ‘Mughal.’

  28 Lefevre: ‘Majalis,’ p. 274.

  29 Jahangir: Tuzuk, vol. 2, pp. 98–9.

  30 Lefevre: ‘Majalis.’

  31 Asher: Architecture, p. 126.

  32 Jahangir: Tuzuk, vol. 2, pp. 91–2; S. Nurul Hasan: Religion.

  33 Jahangir: Tuzuk, vol. 1, pp. 267–8, 279.

  34 Nathan: Baharistan, vol. 1, p. 25.

  35 Moosvi: ‘Mughal.’

  36 Gokhale: ‘Tobacco.’

  37 Jahangir: Tuzuk, vol. 2, p. 369.

  38 Nathan: Baharistan. See also Bhadra: ‘Two.’

  39 Jahangir: Tuzuk, vol. 1, p. 236.

  40 Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 137–8, 144–5.

  41 Findly: Nur; Lal: Nur.

  42 Jahangir: Tuzuk, vol. 2, pp. 348ff.

  43 Athar Ali: Apparatus.

  44 Jahangir: Tuzuk, vol. 2, p. 351.

  45 S. Nurul Hasan: Religion.

  46 Athar Ali: Apparatus, p. xx.

  47 Courtesy Gopal Aggarwal, http://gopal1035.blogspot.com

  48 Asher: Architecture, pp. 127–33; Begley: ‘Four.’

  49 Wright: Catalogue, Plate VIII, 1625–8 CE.

  50 Jahangir: Tuzuk, vol. 1, pp. 435–6.

  51 Inayat Khan: Shah, pp. 333–4.

  52 Jahangir: Tuzuk, vol. 2, p. 234.

  53 Ibid., vol. 2, p. 236.

  54 Monshi: History, vol. 1, pp. 1237, 1290–93.

  55 Alam and Subrahmanyam: ‘Envisioning.’

  56 Chandra: Medieval, vol. 2, pp. 244–5; Richards: Mughal, p. 115; Faruqui: Princes.

  57 Asher: Architecture, pp. 127–33.

  58 (Exterior) Vincent Smith: History, fig. 241, p. 438; (Interior) Courtesy American Institute of Indian Studies.

  Chapter 8: Emperor Shah Jahan and Building Up the Mughal Empire, 1628–58/66

  1 Elliot: History, vol. 7, p. 45.

  2 Chann: ‘Lord’; Moin: Millennial.

  3 Murray: Handbook, Plate I, facing p. 15.

  4 Asher: Architecture, pp. 175–8.

  5 Beach and Koch: King, p. 135.

  6 Inayat Khan: Shah, p. 203.

  7 Ibid.; Beach and Koch: King.

  8 Beach and Koch: King.

  9 Athar Ali: Apparatus, p. xvi.

  10 Haider: ‘Prices’; Moosvi, ‘Expenditure.’

  11 Inayat Khan: Shah, pp. 84–7, 117.

  12 Ibid., p. 570.

  13 Asher: Architecture, pp. 209–15; Begley and Desai: Taj; Koch: Complete.

  14 Murray: Handbook, facing p. 172.

  15 Asher: Architecture, pp. 191–204; Blake: Shahjahanabad.

  16 Ibid., p. 196.

  17 Urwick: Indian, p. 176.

  18 Firdos Anwar: Nobility, pp. 188–9; Beach and Koch: King, p. 11.

  19 Inayat Khan: Shah, pp. 278–89.

  20 Athar Ali: Apparatus; Inayat Khan: Shah, pp. 221–32.

  21 Foltz: ‘Central,’ ‘Mughal.’

  22 Inayat Khan: Shah, p. 335; Foltz: ‘Mughal.’

  23 Moosavi: ‘Expenditure.’

  24 Athar Ali: Apparatus, pp. xvi, xx; Firdos Anwar: Nobility; Inayat Khan: Shah, pp. 339–40; Richards: Mughal, pp. 143–5.

  25 Moosavi: ‘Estimate.’

  26 Inayat Khan: Shah, pp. 510ff.

  27 Athar Ali: Apparatus, p. 322; Hasrat: Dara; Inayat Khan: Shah, pp. 297, 505–6.

  28 Begam: Princess.

  29 Inayat Khan: Shah, pp. 309–14.

  30 Ernst: ‘Muslim’; Hasrat: Dara; Kinra: ‘Infantilizing.’

  Chapter 9: Expanding the Frontiers and Facing Challenges under Emperor ‘Alamgir, 1658–1707

  1 Saqi Mustaid Khan: Maasir, p. 169.

  2 Ibid., p. 11.

  3 Ibid., p. 155.

  4 Ibid., p. 17.

  5 Ibid., e.g., p. 78.

  6 Ibid., p. 144.

  7 Jadunath Sarkar: Studies, pp. 118–52.

  8 ‘Alamgir: Rukaat, pp. 14–19; Jadunath Sarkar: Studies, p. 107.

  9 Bokhari: Imperial.

  10 Saqi Mustaid Khan: Maasir, p. 66.

  11 Jadunath Sarkar: History, vol. 1, Introduction.

  12 ‘Alamgir: Rukaat, pp. 14–19.

  13 Brown: ‘Did’; Schofield: ‘Courtesan,’ ‘Reviving’; Saqi Mustaid Khan: Maasir, p. 45.

  14 Caine: Picturesque, p. 124.

  15 Asher: Architecture, pp. 257–9.

  16 Murray: Handbook, facing p. 234.

  17 Parodi: ‘Bibi.’

  18 Saqi Mustaid Khan: Maasir, p. 62.

  19 Ibid., pp. 71–2.

  20 Syan: Sikh.

  21 Saqi Mustaid Khan: Maasir, pp. 36–7; Pearson: ‘Shivaji.’

  22 ‘Alamgir: Rukaat, pp. 166–8.

  23 Saqi Mustaid Khan: Maasir, p. 53.

  24 Athar Ali: Apparatus, p. 96.

  25 Athar Ali: Mughal, pp. 17–25.

  26 ‘Alamgir: Rukaat, p. 23.

  27 Hallissey: Rajput.

  28 Jadunath Sarkar: History, vol. 3, pp. 156–7, Studies, pp. 91–110.

  29 Caine: Picturesque, p. 460.

  30 Richards: Mughal Administration, ‘Imperial.’

  31 Richards and Rao: ‘Banditry.’

  32 Richards: ‘Norms,’ p. 286; Bhimsen: Tarikh.

  33 Bhimsen: Tarikh, p. 233.

  34 Farooqi: ‘Moguls,’ p. 198.

  35 E.g., Harihar Das: Norris.

  36 ‘Alamgir: Rukaat, pp. 73–4; Faruqui: Princes, pp. 281–308.

  37 Jadunath Sarkar: Short, pp. 366–8.

  Chapter 10: The Thinning of the Empire, 1707–1857

  1 Cited in Dalrymple: Last, p. 300.

  2 Alavi: Eighteenth; Pearson: ‘Shivaji’; Richards: ‘Imperial’; Jagdish Narayan Sarkar: Study; Subrahmanyam: ‘Making.’

  3 Calkins: ‘Formation.’

  4 Alam: Crisis.

  5 Bhargava: Decline; Cheema: Forgotten; Irvine: Later.

  6 Sangwan: Jodhpur.

  7 Lakhnawi: Shahnama, pp. 5–6.

  8 Nayeem: ‘Working.’

  9 Chatterji: ‘Mughal’; Malik: ‘Financial.’

>   10 Lakhnawi: Shahnama; Malik: Mughal.

  11 Malik: Reign.

  12 Alam and Subrahmanyam: ‘Envisioning’; ‘Witnesses.’

  13 Bayly: Indian; Chandra: Eighteenth; Indrani Chatterjee: ‘Slave’s’; Datta: Dutch, Survey; Prakash: ‘Dutch.’

  14 Neamet Ullah: History; Ganda Singh: Ahmad.

  15 Nur Muhammad: Jang.

  16 Datta: Shah; Polier: Shah.

  17 Hodges: Travels, facing p. 30.

  18 Shah Alam II: ‘Letter.’ C.f., Buckler: Legitimacy; Fisher: Counterflows, pp. 86–90.

  19 I‘tesamuddin: Wonders; Gulfishan Khan: Indian, pp. 72–8.

  20 National Archives of India: Calendar, vol. 3, pp. 84–5, 271.

  21 Pernau and Jaffe: Information.

  22 Illustrated London News (5 September 1857), p. 251.

  23 Alam and Subrahmanyam: ‘Envisioning.’

  24 Fisher: Counterflows, pp. 250–59.

  25 Fisher: ‘Imperial.’

  26 Fisher: Inordinately, p. 61.

  27 Urwick: Indian, p. 174.

  Chapter 11: Contested Meanings of the Mughal Empire into the 21st Century

  1 Marx: ‘East.’

  2 For bibliographies, see Kamal Kishore Das: Economic; Elliot: History; D.N. Marshall: Mughals; Robinson: Mughal.

  3 Mukhia: ‘Time.’

  4 E.g., Nathan: Baharistan.

  5 Abu al-Fazl: Ain; Abu-l-Fazl: Akbar; Badauni: Muntakhab.

  6 Carvalho: Mir‘at.

  7 Banarsidasa: Ardhakathanaka.

  8 E.g., Alam and Subrahmanyam: Indo-Persian; Kumkum Chatterjee: Cultures; Curley: Poetry; Gordon: Marathas; Guha: ‘Serving’; Wink: Land.

  9 E.g., Alam and Subrahmanyam: ‘Deccan’; Jadu Nath Sarkar: Bengal.

  10 See Narayana Rao et al.: Textures.

  11 Busch: ‘Hidden’; Pauwels: ‘Saint’; Talbot: ‘Justifying’; Ziegler: ‘Marvari.’

  12 Alam and Subrahmanyam: Indo-Persian; Reis: Travels.

  13 Correia-Alfonso: Jesuit, Letters; Guerreiro: Jahangir; Jarric: Akbar; Maclagan: Jesuits.

  14 Bernier: Travels.

  15 Manucci: Memoirs.

  16 Pelsaert: Jahangir’s; Roe: Embassy; Tavernier: Travels.

  17 Hakluyt: Hakluyt’s; Purchas: Hakluytus.

  18 Mukhlis: Mir‘at.

  19 Rizvi: Shah; Syros: ‘Early.’

  20 Naim: ‘Syed.’

  21 E.g., Jadu Nath Sarkar: Bengal.

  22 E.g., Sayid Ghulam Husain Khan: Seir.

  23 E.g., Abu Talib Khan: History.

  24 Fisher: ‘From.’

  25 Abu Talib Khan: Masir; ‘Vindication.’

  26 Francklin: History.

  27 Mill: History.

  28 Marx: ‘East.’

  29 Erskine: History, vol. 1, p. vii.

  30 Savarkar: Indian.

  31 Cohn: Colonialism.

  32 E.g., Beveridge: ‘Sultan’; Irvine: Army, Later; Moreland: Agrarian, From; Vincent Smith, Akbar, ‘Death,’ History; Williams: Empire.