The Beak of the Finch

by Jonathan Weiner

  Leakey, Richard Ε. 1981. The Making of Mankind. New York: E. P. Dutton.

  Leeper, G. W, ed. 1962. The Evolution of Living Organisms. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press.

  Levin, Bruce R., Dominique A. Caugant, and Robert K. Selander. 1991. “The Genetic Response of the Human E. coli Flora to Antibiotic Treatment.” Personal communication.

  Levin, Donald A., ed. 1979. Hybridization: An Evolutionary Perspective. Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross.

  Levy, Avraham A., and Virginia Walbot. 1990. “Regulation of the Timing of Transposable Element Excision During Maize Development.” Science 248:1534–37.

  Levy, Stuart B. 1978. “Emergence of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria in the Intestinal Flora of Farm Inhabitants.” Journal of Infectious Diseases 137:688–90.

  Lewin, Roger. 1983. “Finches Show Competition in Ecology.” Science 219:1411–12.

  _____. 1983. “Santa Rosalia Was a Goat.” Science 221:636–39.

  Lewontin, Richard C. 1974. The Genetic Basis of Evolutionary Change. New York: Columbia University Press.

  _____. 1978. “Adaptation.” Scientific American 239:213–30.

  _____. 1982. Human Diversity. New York: Scientific American Books.

  Lewontin, Richard C, and L. C. Birch. 1966. “Hybridization as a Source of Variation for Adaptation to New Environments.” Evolution 20:315–36.

  Loughney, Kate, Robert Kreber, and Barry Ganetzky. 1989. “Molecular Analysis of the Para Locus, a Sodium Channel Gene in Drosophila.” Cell 58:1143–54.

  Lowe, Percy R. 1936. “The Finches of the Galápagos in Relation to Darwin’s Conception of Species.” Ibis 13:310–21.

  Lyell, Charles. 1990 (1830–1833). The Principles of Geology. Facsimile of the 1st ed. 3 vols. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

  Mallet, J. L. B. 1990. “Evolution of Insecticide Resistance.” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 5:164–65.

  Mani, G. S. 1990. “Theoretical Models of Melanism in Biston betularia—A Review.” Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 39:355–71.

  May, Robert M., and Andrew P. Dobson. 1986. “Population Dynamics and the Rate of Evolution of Pesticide Resistance.” In Pesticide Resistance. See Roush and Tabashnik, eds. 1986, 170–93.

  Mayr, Ernst. 1965. Animal Species and Evolution. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

  _____. 1970. Populations, Species and Evolution. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

  _____. 1982. The Growth of Biological Thought. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

  _____. 1986. “The Contributions of Birds to Evolutionary Theory.” International Ornithological Congress (19th): 2718–23.

  _____. 1991. One Long Argument. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.

  McDonald, John F. 1983. “The Molecular Basis of Adaptation: A Critical Review of Relevant Ideas and Observations.” Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 14:77–102.

  Melville, Herman. 1987. The Essential Melville. New York: Ecco Press.

  Merlen, Godfrey. 1985. “The Nature of El Niño: A Perspective.” In El Niño. See Robinson and del Pino, eds. 1985, 133–50.

  Miller, Julie Ann. 1989. “Diseases for Our Future.” BioScience 39:509–17.

  Millington, S. J., and Peter R. Grant. 1983. “Feeding Ecology and Territoriality of the Cactus Finch Geospiza scandens on Isla Daphne Major, Galápagos.” Oecologia 58:76–83.

  Millington, S. J., and Trevor D. Price. 1982. “Birds on Daphne Major 1979–1981.” Noticias de Galápagos 35:25–27.

  Milner, Richard. 1990. The Encyclopedia of Evolution. New York: Facts on File.

  Milton, John. 1969 (1667–1674). Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday.

  Moore, James R. 1985. “Darwin of Down: The Evolutionist as Squarson-Naturalist.” In Darwinian Heritage. See Kohn, ed. 1985, 435–81.

  Moorehead, Alan. 1971. Darwin and the Beagle. Reprint ed. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books.

  Neu, Harold C. 1992. “The Crisis in Antibiotic Resistance.” Science 257:1064–73. Newton, Ian. 1973. Finches. New York: Taplinger Publishing.

  Otte, Daniel. 1989. “Speciation in Hawaiian Crickets.” In Speciation. See Otte and Endler, eds. 1989, 482–525.

  Otte, Daniel, and John A. Endler, eds. 1989. Speciation and Its Consequences. Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates.

  Parkin, David T. 1987. “Evolutionary Genetics of House Sparrows.” In Avian Genetics. See Cooke and Buckley, eds. 1987, 381–406.

  Patterson, Colin. 1978. Evolution. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

  Pearl, Raymond. 1911. “Data on the Relative Conspicuousness of Fowls.” American Naturalist 45:107–17.

  _____. 1917. “The Selection Problem.” American Naturalist 51:65–91.

  _____. 1930. “Requirements of a Proof That Natural Selection Has Altered a Race.” Scientia 47:175–86.

  Perrins, C. M., and T. R. Birkhead. 1983. Avian Ecology. Bishopbriggs, Glasgow: Blackie & Sons.

  Pfeiffer, John E. 1982. The Creative Explosion. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

  _____. 1985. The Emergence of Humankind. 4th ed. New York: Harper & Row.

  Phillips, Rodney E., et al. 1991. “Human Immunodeficiency Virus: Genetic Variation That Can Escape Cytotoxic T Cell Recognition.” Nature 354:453.

  Plapp, Frederick W., Jr. 1986. “Genetics and Biochemistry of Insecticide Resistance in Arthropods.” In Pesticide Resistance. See Roush and Tabashnik, eds. 1986, 74–85.

  Plapp, Frederick W., Jr., et al. 1990. “Monitoring and Management of Pyrethroid Resistance in the Tobacco Budworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in Texas, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Oklahoma.” Journal of Economic Entomology 83:335–41.

  Plapp, Frederick W., Jr., et al. 1986. “Management of Pyrethroid-Resistant Tobacco Budworms on Cotton in the United States.” In Pesticide Resistance. Roush and Tabashnik, eds. 1986, 237–60.

  Porter, Duncan M. 1983. “Vascular Plants of the Galápagos: Origins and Dispersal.” In Patterns of Evolution. See Bowman et al., eds. 1983, 33–96.

  _____. 1985. “The Beagle Collector and His Collections.” In The Darwinian Heritage. See Kohn, ed. 1985, 973–1019.

  _____. 1987. “Darwin Notes on Beagle Plants.” Bulletin of the British Museum of Natural History (historical ser.) 14:145–233.

  Prevosti, Antonio, et al. 1985. “The Colonization of Drosophila subobscura in Chile. II. Clines in the Chromosomal Arrangements.” Evolution 39:838–44.

  _____. 1990. “Clines of Chromosomal Arrangements of Drosophila subobscura in South America Evolve Closer to Old World Patterns.” Evolution 44:218–21.

  Price, Trevor D. 1984. “The Evolution of Sexual Size Dimorphism in Darwin’s Finches.” American Naturalist 123:500–18.

  _____. 1984. “Sexual Selection on Body Size, Territory, and Plumage Variables in a Population of Darwin’s Finches.” Evolution 38:327–41.

  _____. 1990. “Memoir of Life on Daphne Major.” Unpublished.

  Price, Trevor D., and Peter T. Boag. 1987. “Selection in Natural Populations of Birds.” In Avian Genetics. See Cooke and Buckley, eds. 1987, 257–87.

  Price, Trevor D., and Peter R. Grant. 1984. “Life History Traits and Natural Selection for Small Body Size in a Population of Darwin’s Finches.” Evolution 38:483–94.

  Price, Trevor D., Peter R. Grant, and Peter T. Boag. 1984. “Genetic Changes in the Morphological Differentiation of Darwin’s Ground Finches.” In Wöhrmann, K., and V. Loeschcke, eds. 1984. Population Biology and Evolution. New York: Springer-Verlag, 49–66.

  Price, Trevor D., et al. 1984. “Recurrent Patterns of Natural Selection in a Population of Darwin’s Finches.” Nature 309:787–89.

  Prokopy, Ronald J., and Bernard D. Roitberg. 1984. “Foraging Behavior of True Fruit Flies.” American Scientist 72:41–49.

  Prokopy, Ronald J., et al. 1982. “Associative Learning in Egglaying Site Selection by Apple Maggot Flies.” Science 218
:76–77.

  Provine, William B. 1985. “Adaptation and Mechanisms of Evolution after Darwin: A Study in Persistent Controversies.” In The Darwinian Heritage. See Kohn, ed. 1985, 825–66.

  _____. 1993. “Scientific Supernaturalism. A Review of The Origin of Species Revisited: The Theories of Evolution and of Abrupt Appearance, by W. R. Bird.” Biology and Philosophy 8:111–24.

  Raimondi, Peter T. 1992. “Adult Plasticity and Rapid Larval Evolution in a Recently Isolated Barnacle Population.” Biological Bulletin 182:210–20.

  Ratcliffe, Laurene M., and Peter R. Grant. 1983. “Species Recognition in Darwin’s Finches (Geospiza Gould). I. Discrimination by Morphological Cues.” Animal Behavior 31:1139–53.

  _____. 1983. “Species Recognition in Darwin’s Finches (Geospiza Gould). II. Geographic Variation in Mate Preference.” Animal Behaviour 31:1154–65.

  _____. 1985. “Species Recognition in Darwin’s Finches (Geospiza Gould). III. Male Responses to Playback of Different Song Types, Dialects and Heterospecific Songs.” Animal Behaviour 33:290–307.

  Ratner, Lee, et al. 1985. “Complete Nucleotide Sequence of the AIDS Virus, HTLV-III.” Nature 313:277–84.

  Raup, David M. 1991. Extinction. New York: W. W. Norton.

  Raymond, Michel, et al. 1991. “Worldwide Migration of Amplified Insecticide Resistance Genes in Mosquitoes.” Nature 350:151–53.

  Reznick, David, and John A. Endler. 1982. “The Impact of Predation on Life History Evolution in Trinidadian Guppies (Poecilia reticulata).” Evolution 36:160–77.

  Reznick, David A., Heather Bryga, and John A. Endler. 1990. “Experimentally Induced Life-History Evolution in a Natural Population.” Nature 346:357–59.

  Rheinberger, Hans-Jörg, and Peter McLaughlin. 1984. “Darwin’s Experimental Natural History.” Journal of the History of Biology 17:345–68.

  Ricklefs, Robert E. Ecology. 1990. 3rd ed. New York: W. H. Freeman.

  Ridley, Mark. 1985. The Problems of Evolution. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press.

  Riedl, Helmut. 1983. “Analysis of Codling Moth Phenology in Relation to Latitude, Climate and Food Availability.” In Brown, V. K., and I. Hodek, eds. 1983. Diapause and Life Cycle Strategies in Insects. The Hague: Dr. W. Junk Publishers, 233–52.

  Robinson, Gary, and Eugenia M. del Pino, eds. 1985. El Niño in the Galápagos Islands: The 1982–1983 Event. Quito, Ecuador: Fundación Charles Darwin para las Islas Galápagos.

  Robinson, Michael H., and Lionel Tiger, eds. 1991. Man and Beast Revisited. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.

  Robson, G. C., and O. W. Richards. 1936. The Variation of Animals in Nature. London: Longmans, Green.

  Roush, R. T., and B. Tabashnik, eds. 1986. Pesticide Resistance in Arthropods. New York: Chapman.

  Ruse, Michael, ed. 1988. But Is It Science? Buffalo: Prometheus Books.

  Salkoff, Lawrence, et al. 1987. “Molecular Biology of the Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel.” Trends in Neurosciences 10:522–26.

  Salvin, O. 1876. “On the Avifauna of the Galápagos Archipelago.” Transactions of the Zoological Society of London 9:447–510.

  Schluter, Dolph. 1982. “Distributions of Galápagos Ground Finches along an Altitudinal Gradient: The Importance of Food Supply.” American Naturalist 63:1504–17.

  _____. 1982. “Seed and Patch Selection by Galápagos Ground Finches: Relation to Foraging Efficiency and Food Supply.” Ecology 63:1106–20.

  _____. 1986. “Character Displacement Between Distantly Related Taxa? Finches and Bees in the Galápagos.” American Naturalist 127:95–102.

  _____. 1986. “Morphological Adaptation and Diet in the Galápagos Ground Finches.” International Ornithological Congress (19th), 2283–95.

  _____. 1988. “Character Displacement and the Adaptive Divergence of Finches on Islands and Continents.” American Naturalist 131:799–824.

  _____. 1988. “Estimating the Form of Natural Selection on a Quantitative Trait.” Evolution 42:849–61.

  _____. 1988. “The Evolution of Finch Communities on Islands and Continents: Kenya vs. Galápagos.” Ecological Monographs 58:229–49.

  Schluter, Dolph, and Peter R. Grant. 1982. “The Distribution of Geospiza difficilis in Relation to G. fuliginosa in the Galápagos Islands: Tests of Three Hypotheses.” Evolution 36:1213–26.

  _____. 1984. “Determinants of Morphological Patterns in Communities of Darwin’s Finches.” American Naturalist 123:175–96.

  _____. 1984. “Ecological Correlates of Morphological Evolution in a Darwin’s Finch, Geospiza difficilis.” Evolution 38:856–69.

  Schluter, Dolph, and J. Donald McPhail. 1992. “Ecological Character Displacement and Speciation in Sticklebacks.” American Naturalist 140:85–108.

  Schluter, Dolph, Trevor D. Price, and Peter R. Grant. 1985. “Ecological Character Displacement in Darwin’s Finches.” Science 227:1056–59.

  Schluter, Dolph, Trevor D. Price, and Locke Rowe. 1991. “Conflicting Selection Pressures and Life History Trade-Offs.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London (B) 246:11–17.

  Schluter, Dolph, and James N. M. Smith. 1986. “Natural Selection on Beak and Body Size in the Song Sparrow.” Evolution 40:221–31.

  Searle, Jeremy B. 1992. “When Is a Species Not a Species?” Current Biology 2:407–8.

  Sheppard, Carol M. 1993. “Benjamin Walsh: First State Entomologist of Illinois and Proponent of Darwinian Theory.” Unpublished.

  Sheppard, P. M. 1967. Natural Selection and Heredity. 3rd ed. London: Hutchinson University Library.

  Sibley, Charles G., and Jon E. Ahlquist. 1990. Phytogeny and Classification of Birds. New Haven: Yale University Press.

  Simberloff, Daniel. 1984. “The Great God of Competition.” The Sciences 24.4: 16–22.

  Smith, G. T. Corley. 1987. “Looking Back.” Noticias de Galápagos 45:11–16.

  _____. 1990. “A Brief History of the Charles Darwin Foundation for the Galápagos Islands 1959–1988.” Noticias de Galápagos 49:4–36.

  Smith, James N. M., and Hugh P. A. Sweatman. 1976. “Feeding Habits and Morphological Variation in Cocos Finches.” Condor 78:244–48.

  Smith, James N. M., et al. 1978. “Seasonal Variation in Feeding Habits of Darwin’s Ground Finches.” Ecology 59:1137–50.

  Smith, R. C., et al. 1992. “Ozone Depletion: Ultraviolet Radiation and Phytoplankton Biology in Antarctic Waters.” Science 255:952–59.

  Sober, Elliott. 1984. The Nature of Selection. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.

  _____. 1985. “Darwin on Natural Selection: A Philosophical Perspective.” In The Darwinian Heritage. See Kohn, ed. 1985, 867–99.

  Steadman, David W. 1982. “The Origin of Darwin’s Finches (Fringillidae: Passeriformes).” Transactions of the San Diego Society of Natural History 19:279–96.

  _____. 1984. “The Status of Geospiza magnirostris on Isla Floreana, Galápagos.” Bulletin of the British Ornithological Club 104:99–102.

  _____. 1986. “Holocene Terrestrial Gastropod Faunas from Isla Santa Cruz and Isla Floreana, Galápagos: Evidence for Late Holocene Declines.” Transactions of the San Diego Society of Natural History 21:89–110.

  _____. 1986. Holocene Vertebrate Fossils from Isla Floreana, Galápagos. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology. No. 413. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. (My chief source for the story of Magnirostris magnirostris.)

  Steadman, David W., and Steven Zousmer. 1988. Galápagos. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.

  Stone, Irving. 1980. The Origin. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday.

  Stoppard, Tom. 1981. “This Other Eden.” Noticias de Galápagos 34:6–7.

  Strong, Donald R., Jr., Lee Ann Szyska, and Daniel S. Simberloff. 1979. “Tests of Community-Wide Character Displacement against Null Hypothesis.” Evolution 33:897–913.

  Strong, Donald, Jr., et al., eds. 1984. Ecological Communities. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

  Sulloway, Frank J. 1982. “The Beagle Collections of Darwin’s Finches (Geospizi
nae).” Bulletin of the British Museum of Natural History (Zoology) 43:49–94. (Sulloway’s papers are my chief source for the history in Chapter 2.)

  _____. 1982. “Darwin and His Finches: The Evolution of a Legend.” Journal of the History of Biology 15:1–53.

  _____. 1982. “Darwin’s Conversion: The Beagle Voyage and Its Aftermath.” Journal of the History of Biology 15:325–96.

  _____. 1984. “Darwin and the Galápagos.” Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 21:29–59.

  Sutherland, William J. 1990. “Evolution and Fisheries.” Nature 344:814–15.

  _____. 1992. “Genes Map the Migratory Route.” Nature 360:625–26.

  Swarth, Harry S. 1934. “The Bird Fauna of the Galápagos Islands in Relation to Species Formation.” Biological Reviews 9:213–34.

  Tax, Sol, ed. 1980. Evolution after Darwin. 3 vols. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

  Taylor, Martin. 1990. “Summary of Research, 1988—Present: Population Genetics of Pyrethroid Resistance in Heliothis.” Unpublished manuscript.

  _____. 1991. “The Evolution of Resistance to Pyrethroids in Tobacco Budworms.” Unpublished lecture notes.

  _____. 1991. “What Are the Gene(s) Conferring Resistance to Pyrethroids in Tobacco Budworm?” Unpublished lecture notes.

  Taylor, Martin, et al. 1993. “Genome Size and Endopolyploidy in Pyrethroid-Resistant and Susceptible Strains of Heliothis virescens (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae).” Journal of Economic Entomology 86:1030–34.

  _____. 1993. “Linkage of Pyrethroid Insecticide Resistance to a Sodium Channel Locus in the Tobacco Budworm.” Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 23:763–75.

  Tomasz, Alexander. 1990. “Auxiliary Genes Assisting in the Expression of Methicilhn Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus.” In Novick, Richard P., ed. 1990. Molecular Biology of the Staphylococci. New York: V. C. H. Publishers, 565–83.

  _____. 1990. “New and Complex Strategies of Beta-Lactam Antibiotic Resistance in Pneumococci and Staphylococci.” In Ayoub, I. M., et al., eds. 1990. Microbial Determinants of Virulence and Host Response. Washington, D.C.: American Society for Microbiology, 345–59.

  Toulmin, Stephen, and June Goodfield. 1965. The Discovery of Time. New York: Harper & Row.