The Good Book
Page 57
8. Always showed a composed countenance, and trod only one path – that which led to the assembly and the senate.
9. For a populace is not a simple and easy thing for any chance person to subject to that control which is salutary;
10. But one must be satisfied if the multitude accepts authority without shying, like a suspicious and capricious beast, at face or voice.
11. Since, then, the statesman must not treat even these matters carelessly, he ought not to neglect the things which affect his life and character,
12. To keep them clear of blame and ill report of every kind.
13. For not only are statesmen held responsible for their public words and actions,
14. But people are curious and pry into all their concerns,
15. Wishing to know about their dinners, love affairs, marriages, amusements and every serious interest.
16. What need is there, for instance, to speak of Alcibiades, who,
17. Though he was most active of all the citizens in public affairs and was undefeated as a general,
18. Was ruined by his audacious and dissolute habits in private life,
19. And, because of his extravagance and lack of restraint, deprived the state of the benefit of his other good qualities?
20. Why, the Athenians blamed Cimon for wine-drinking,
21. And the Romans, having nothing else to say, blamed Scipio for sleeping;
22. And the enemies of Pompey the Great, observing that he scratched his head with one finger, reviled him for it!
23. For, just as a mole or a wart on the face is more unpleasant than brand-marks, mutilations, or scars on other parts of the body,
24. So small faults appear great when observed in the lives of leaders and statesmen on account of the opinion which the majority has of governing and public office,
25. Regarding it as a great thing which ought to be clean of all eccentricities and errors.
26. With good reason, therefore, did Livius Drusus the tribune gain in reputation because,
27. When many parts of his house were exposed to the view of his neighbours and an artisan promised to conceal them for only five coins,
28. Drusus replied, ‘Take ten coins and make the whole house open to view, that all the citizens may see how I live.’
29. For he was a man of temperate and well-ordered life.
30. And perhaps he had no need of that exposure to the public view;
31. For the people see through the characters, counsels, acts and lives of public men, even those that seem to be very thickly cloaked;
32. They love and admire one man and dislike and despise another quite as much for his private as for his public practices.
33. ‘But,’ you say, ‘do not states put in office men who live licentiously and wantonly?’
34. They do, but it is just like pregnant women who long for sweetmeats,
35. And seasick persons for salt pickles and the like, which then a little later they vomit up and detest.
36. So the people, because of the luxury of their own lives or through sheer perversity,
37. Or for lack of better leaders, make use of those who happen to turn up, though they dislike or even despise them,
38. Then take pleasure in hearing defamatory and critical things said about them.
39. And remember how the Roman people, when Carbo promised something, unanimously voted that they did not trust him.
40. And at Lacedaemon, when a dissolute man named Demosthenes made a desirable motion, the people rejected it,
41. But the ephors chose by lot one of the elders and told him to make that same motion, in order that it might be made acceptable to the people,
42. Thus pouring, as it were, from a dirty vessel into a clean one.
Chapter 17
1. The foregoing shows how great is the importance, in a free state, of confidence or lack of confidence in a statesman’s character.
2. However, we should not on this account neglect the charm and power of eloquence and ascribe everything to virtue,
3. But, considering oratory to be, not the creator of persuasion but certainly its co-worker, we should qualify Menander’s view that ‘The speaker’s nature, not his speech, persuades’,
4. For both his nature and his speech do so; unless, indeed, one is to affirm that just as the helmsman, not the tiller, steers the ship,
5. And the rider, not the rein, turns the horse, so political virtue, employing not speech but the speaker’s character as tiller or rein, sways a state,
6. Laying hold of it and directing it, as it were, from the stern, which is the easiest way of turning an animal about.
7. Great kings and emperors of the past dressed themselves in purple robes, carried sceptres, and surrounded themselves with guards and much ceremony,
8. Yet although they enslaved multitudes by this show, as if they were superior beings,
9. They still desired to be orators, and did not neglect the charm of speech,
10. Trying to soften by persuasion and overcoming by charms the fierce hearts of the people,
11. Whenever it was not politic or possible to do it by threat or force.
12. How, then, is it possible that a private person of ordinary costume and mien, who wishes to lead a state,
13. May gain power and rule the multitude, unless he possesses persuasion and attractive speech?
14. Now the pilots of ships employ others to give orders to the rowers,
15. But the statesman needs to have in himself the mind that steers and also in himself the speech that gives orders,
16. That he may not require some other man’s voice and be obliged to say,
17. As Iphicrates did when defeated through the eloquence of Aristophon’s orators,
18. ‘My opponents’ actor is better, but my play is superior.’
19. The spokesman who employs speech as his only instrument, moulding and adapting some things,
20. And softening and smoothing off those which are hindrances to his work,
21. Such as would be knots in wood or flaws in iron, is an ornament to the state.
22. For this reason the government of Pericles, though in name a democracy, was in fact the rule of the foremost man because of his power of oratory.
23. For Cimon also was a good man, as were Ephialtes and Thucydides,
24. But when the last named was asked by Archidamus, king of the Spartans, whether he or Pericles was the better wrestler, he replied,
25. ‘Nobody can tell; for whenever I throw him in wrestling, he says he was not thrown and wins by persuading the onlookers.’
26. And this brought not only reputation to Pericles but safety to the state;
27. For while it was swayed by him it preserved its existing prosperity and refrained from foreign entanglements.
28. But Nicias, whose policy was the same, but who lacked powers of persuasion, could not restrain or master the people,
29. But against his will went off to Sicily at the prompting of their intemperance, and together with them suffered disaster.
Chapter 18
1. The wolf, they say, cannot be held by the ears; but one must lead a people or a state chiefly by the ears,
2. Not, as some do who have no practice in speaking, and seek uncultured and inartistic holds upon the people, by pulling them by the belly,
3. With banquets or gifts of money or arranging ballet dances or gladiatorial shows, by which they curry favour with the people.
4. For leadership of a people is leadership of those who are persuaded by speech;
5. But enticing the mob by such means is exactly like catching and herding irrational beasts.
6. The speech of the statesman, however, must not be theatrical,
7. As if he were making a speech for show and weaving a garland of words for their own sake and not for the sake of serious matter;
8. On the other hand it must not, as Pytheas said of the speech of Demosthenes, smell of the lamp and
elaborate literary labour,
9. With sharp arguments and with periods precisely measured by rule and compass.
10. No, just as musicians demand that the touch upon the strings exhibit feeling, not mere technique,
11. So the speech of the statesman, counsellor and ruler must not exhibit shrewdness or subtlety,
12. And it must not be to his credit to speak fluently or artistically or distributively;
13. But his speech must be full of unaffected character, true high-mindedness, a father’s frankness, foresight, and thoughtful concern for others.
14. His speech must also have, in a good cause, a charm that pleases and a winning persuasiveness;
15. In addition to nobility of purpose it must possess grace arising from appropriate and persuasive thoughts.
16. And political oratory, much more than that used in a court of law, admits maxims, historical examples and metaphors,
17. By means of which those who employ them sparingly and at the proper moment move their audiences exceedingly;
18. As did Phocion when he said, with reference to the victory of Leosthenes,
19. That the furlong race of the war was good, but he was fearful about the long-distance race.
20. And in general, sobriety and clarity of style are most fitting for political speech;
21. Rhetorical efforts and grand periods are especially inappropriate in times of danger or war,
22. For as has been said, ‘None should talk foolishly when near the steel.’
23. However, derision and ridicule are sometimes proper parts of the statesman’s speech if employed, not as insults or buffoonery, but for needful reproof and disparagement.
24. That sort of thing is most laudable in rejoinders and replies; but when employed of set purpose and without provocation, it carries a suspicion of malice.
25. But for one who employs wit in self-defence the occasion makes it pardonable and at the same time pleasing,
26. As when Demosthenes, in reply to a man who was suspected of being a thief and who mocked him for writing at night, said,
27. ‘I am aware that I offend you by keeping a light burning.’
28. Witty too was Xenaenetus’ rejoinder to the citizens who reviled him for running away when he was general:
29. ‘Yes,’ he said, ‘it was to keep you company, my dears.’
30. But in jesting one must guard against going too far, perhaps offending by jesting at the wrong moment or humiliating the speaker.
31. Polyeuctus said that Demosthenes was the greatest orator, but that Phocion was the cleverest in speaking, because his speech contained the most meaning in the fewest words.
32. And Demosthenes, though he affected to despise other orators, used to say when Phocion rose to speak, ‘The cleaver of my speeches is getting up.’
33. In sum then, the aspiring statesman must, in addressing the people, seek to employ well-considered, not empty, speech,
34. And to use precaution, knowing that even the great Pericles used to prepare carefully before making a public speech,
35. So that no single utterance foreign to the matter in hand might occur to him.
36. Yet also the orator must always keep his speech nimble and in good practice for making apt rejoinders;
37. For occasions arise quickly and often bring with them in public affairs sudden developments.
38. That is why Demosthenes was inferior to many, as they say, because he drew back and hesitated when the occasion called for the opposite course.
39. And Theophrastus tells us that Alcibiades, because he planned not only to say the right thing, but to say it in the right way,
40. Often while actually speaking would search for words and arrange them into sentences, thereby causing hesitation and stumbling.
41. But the man who is so moved by events and the opportunities they offer that he springs to his feet is the one who most thrills the crowd and carries it with him.
42. And the statesman must bring to the struggle of statecraft, a struggle which is important, and calls for all one’s fighting power,
43. Not just education and forethought, but good health and stamina, that he may not be frequently so weary that he is defeated by mere hecklers.
44. Cato, when he had no hope of winning his cause by persuasion because the senate was gained over beforehand by favours and interests,
45. Used to get up and speak the whole day, thus destroying his opponents’ opportunity, and showing the worth of stamina.
Chapter 19
1. There are two entrances to public life and two paths leading to it:
2. One the quick and brilliant road to reputation, by no means without risk; the other more prosaic and slower, but safer.
3. For some men launch out at once into political life with some conspicuous great or daring action,
4. Like men who launch a vessel from a promontory that juts out into the sea;
5. They think Pindar is right in saying ‘To a work’s beginning we must set a front that shines afar.’
6. People are more ready to accept a beginner because they are surfeited with those they are accustomed to,
7. Just as spectators at a show are glad to see a new performer; and authority and power that has a brilliant and rapid growth takes envy’s breath away.
8. For, as Ariston says, fire does not cause smoke, nor does reputation cause envy, if it blazes up quickly at the start;
9. But those who grow great gradually and slowly are attacked one from one side, another from another;
10. Hence many men wither away before coming to full bloom as statesmen.
11. Remember Pompey, who demanded a Triumph although he had not yet been admitted to the senate;
12. When Sulla voted against it, Pompey said to him, ‘More welcome the rising than the setting sun’;
13. And Sulla, when he heard this, withdrew his opposition.
14. Nowadays, when the affairs of states less often involve leadership in wars, the overthrowing of tyrannies, acts of alliances,
15. What opening for a conspicuous and brilliant public career could a young man find?
16. There remain the public lawsuits, and embassies abroad,
17. Which demand a man of ardent temperament and one who possesses both courage and intellect.
18. But there are many excellent lines of endeavour that are neglected in our cities which a man may take up,
19. And also many practices resulting from evil custom, that have insinuated themselves to the shame or injury of the state,
20. Which a man may remove, and thus turn them to account for himself.
21. Indeed in past times a just verdict gained in a great suit,
22. Or good faith in acting as advocate for a weak client against a powerful opponent,
23. Or boldness of speech on behalf of the right against a wicked ruler,
24. Has opened to some men a glorious entrance into public life.
25. And not a few also have grown great through the enemies they have made by attacking men whose position made them enviable or caused them to be feared;
26. For when such a man is overthrown his power passes at once, and with better reputation, to the man who overcame him.
27. For attacking, through motives of envy, a good man who, on account of his virtue, is leader of the state,
28. As Pericles was attacked by Simmias, Themistocles by Alcmeon, Pompey by Clodius, and Epameinondas by Menecleides the orator,
29. Is neither conducive to a good reputation nor advantageous in any other way;
30. For when the people have committed a wrong against a good man and then repent of their anger,
31. They think the easiest way to excuse themselves for this offence is the most just, namely,
32. To destroy the man who was the author of it and persuaded them to commit it.
33. On the other hand, to revolt against a bad man who by shameless audacity and cunning has made affairs subject to himself,
35. Provides a glorious entrance upon the stage of public life.
36. And I am not ignorant of the fact that some men by curtailing the power of an oppressive and oligarchical senate,
37. As Ephialtes did at Athens and Phormio at Elis,
38. Have gained at the same time both power and glory;
39. But to one who is just entering upon public life there is a great risk in this.
40. Therefore Solon made a better beginning, when Athens was divided into three factions called the Diacrians (‘hill-folk’), the Pedieans (‘plains-folk’), and the Paralians (‘coast-folk’);
41. For he entangled himself with none of them, but acted for all in common and said and did everything to bring about concord among them,
42. So that he was chosen lawgiver to reconcile their differences and in this way established his rule.
Chapter 20
1. So many, then, and of such kinds are the more conspicuous ways of entering upon a public career.
2. But the safe and leisurely way has been chosen by many famous men – Aristeides, Phocion, Pammenes the Theban, Lucullus at Rome, Cato, the Lacedaemonian Agesilaus.
3. For just as ivy rises by twining itself about a strong tree, so each of these men, by attaching himself while still young to an older man,
4. And while still obscure to a man of reputation, being gradually raised up under the shelter of his power and growing great with him,
5. Fixed himself firmly and rooted himself in the affairs of state.
6. For Aristeides was made great by Cleisthenes, Phocion by Chabrias, Lucullus by Sulla,
7. Cato by Maximus, Epameinondas aided Pammenes and Lysander Agesilaus.
8. But Agesilaus, through untimely ambition and jealousy of Lysander’s reputation, insulted and quickly cast aside the guide of his actions;
9. But the others in noble and statesmanlike fashion cherished their teachers until the end and joined in honouring them,
10. Enhancing in turn with their own radiance, and illuminating, like the heavenly bodies that face the sun, that which caused themselves to shine.
11. Certainly Scipio’s detractors said that he was the actor, but his friend Laelius the real author of his deeds;