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180 References
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Index
‘6ft1Swell’ (male bodybuilder) 75–6, 79, 82
‘Body Pump’ sessions 106
‘body work’ 17
AAS see anabolic-androgenic steroids
Bolin, Anne 49
Aiden (male bodybuilder) 82–3
book summary 9
Alice (female bodybuilder) 60, 67, 108
Bordo, S. 27, 39, 44–6, 49, 69, 70–2, 73,
‘Amazons’ term 27
121, 130, 155
amenorrhea (absence of periods) 93
Boyko, Wally 34
Amy (female bodybuilder) 62, 64, 68–9, 132
Brant-Peckham, Monica 35
anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) 85,
Bridges, Sarah 32–3, 33
86–7
British Female Professional bodybuilders
anavar (oxandralone) 95
32–3
animalpak.co.uk 117, 119, 124
British Natural Bodybuilding Foundation
Anna (female bodybuilder) 110, 125
(BNBF) 32
anorexia and bodybuilding (similarities)
British scene (female bodybuilding) 32–4
44–5
Butler, George 29
antithesis of femininity 6
Caesars Palaces World Cup Championship
Barbara (female bodybuilder) 71, 77, 84,
Competition (1983) 29
88–91, 92, 94, 95, 110
Carol (female weight-trainer) 126–7
Barilleaux, Doris 28
Caroline (female bodybuilder) 59, 88, 93, 95
Bassett, Angela 29
Chare, Nicholas 74, 82–3, 83
Bavington, Lisa (female bodybuilder) 47–8
Charlie (female bodybuilder) 65, 77, 112,
BEEF: British Muscle in Action
114
(magazine) 33–4
Cheshire, Carolyn 32
‘belonging’ 24
Chizevsky, Kim 31, 82
Bennett, Diana (‘godmother’ of
Christine (female bodybuilder) 60, 64, 66–7
bodybuilding’) 32
Clomid (steroid) 92
Bennett, Wag 32
competitions: conclusions 149–50; critical
‘biographical agency’ 73
feminists 134; day of competition
Bircumshaw, Paula 30–1
(ritual) 143–9; feminist perspectives
Blanchette, Andrulla 31, 33
133–4; final stretch: elusive body
BNBF see British Natural Bodybuilding
140–143; hard times 138–40; ‘holy
Foundation
grail’ of bodybuilding 132–3;
body dissatisfaction: investing too much
introduction 131; orange tan 141;
in body’s appearance: food 69–70;
start of journey 135–8
introduction 67–9; regime 70–3
conclusions: comments 162–3; future
‘body image’ 24
161–2; personal interpretations 153–4;
‘body projects’ 5
research 160–1; summary and analysis
body projects and feminine identity 65–7
of empirical findings 154–60
182 Index
confessions of a muscle slave 98–100
feminine body 39–40; third-wave
context and the body 4–6
gender activism 43–4
Corina (female bodybuilder) 63, 66, 77, 126
feminist reactions: female bodybuilding
Cornwall, Maria 115–16
as form of control over women:
Creavalle, Laura 31
competitions as controlling female
Cross, Lisa 37, 78
bodybuilders 47–8; hyperfemininity and
Currie, Susie 35
compulsory heterosexuality of female
bodybuilders 46–7; myth of empowered
Danielle (female bodybuilder) 63, 68, 78,
female bodybuilders: anorexia and
92, 107–8
bodybuilding similarities 44–6
‘dark side’ of female bodybuilding:
Fitness competitions 34–5
conclusions 96–7; muscle worship
Flex (magazine) 33
74–85; steroids 85–96
food and female bodybuilders 69–70
de Beauvoir, Simone 11, 55
Foucault, M. 45, 72
Debbie (female bodybuilder) 66, 88, 125
Francis, Bev 30
Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS)
Frueh, Joanna 43, 59, 79, 127–9
123, 126
Fussell, Sam 50, 72, 118–19, 121
dianabol (steroid) 95
DOMS see Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness
Gassell, Natalie 79, 128
Douglas (muscle worshipper) 81
Gemma (female bodybuilder) 109
Dunlap, Carla 30, 34
gender and ‘destructive’ physical practices
Dworkin, A. 91
122
gendered noise/sound: weights room 105–7
Ellam, Jeannie 33
‘GI Jane’ (film) 125
Emma (female bodybuilder) 63, 71, 89,
Goffman, Erving 55–6, 58, 105, 108
95, 126
Goscz, E. 128
‘empowerment’: concept 7–9; sex work
Grey, Lynn 36
85; women’s views 80
Grimshaw, J. 72–3, 114–15
‘empowerment’ of female bodybuilders
gynecomastia 87
through concept of space: bodies on
display: looks and comments act as
Hamilton, Linda 29
censorship for spatial transgression
Heywood, Leslie 43–4, 47, 49
108–11; body in space 111–13;
Hilda Barrett’s School of Dancing 1
conclusions 114–16; gendered noise/
history of female bodybuilding: 1980s:
sound 104–7; hospitable back region of
golden era of female bodybuilding
gym 111; introduction 101–2; penalties
29–30; 1990s: inconsistencies and
for crossing into male territory 107–8;
contradiction in placing 30–1; 2000:
postures 113–14; sexed space: building
controversy and changes 31–2; birth of
gendered bodies 102–4
female bodybuilding 27–9; British scene
Erin (female bodybuilder) 79–80, 84
32–4; conclusions 38; decline of female
ethnography: definition 21
bodybuilding? (fitness, figure and bikini
Everson, Cory (female Arnold
competitions) 34–8; introduction 26–7
Schwarzenegger) 30
Hodgson, John 33
female bodybuilders: description 15–16;
‘identity’ 24
sexual commodities 84–5
identity, lifestyle and embodiment
‘female muscle worship’ 74–5
of female bodybuilders: body
‘femininity’: factor 48; recuperation 73
dissatisfaction: investing too much
feminist reactions: female bodybuilder
in body’s appearance 67–73; body
as feminist icon: body projects 40–1;
projects and feminine identity 65–7;
deconstructing the feminine and
conclusions 73; defying gendered social
breaking down dichotomies 42–3; power
interaction order 59–61; interaction
over nature 41–2; space: invading the
order 54–7; introduction 54; pursuit
male domain and transgressing ‘slender’
of female muscle as deviant 58–9;
Index 183
quest for muscularity: embodied
pleasure of ‘pump’ 89–90; vocal chords
pleasures and identity 61–4; stereotypes,
94; weight training 113
stigma and marginalization 57
Monaghan, L. F. 7, 64, 87–8, 96, 122–5,
IFBB see International Federation for
127–8, 130, 158
Bodybuilding
Monica (female bodybuilder) 61, 107, 129
Intense Pulsed Light (IPL) 92
Ms Bikini America 35
International Federation for Bodybuilding
Ms Fitness Olympia 35
(IFBB) 28–9, 31, 35–6
Ms National Fitness Contest 34
‘Ms Olympia’ 29, 31–2, 43
Jacqui (female bodybuilder) 111
Murray, Lenda 31, 82
Jennifer (female bodybuilder) 70–1
‘muscle dysmorphia’ 68
Muscle and Fitness (magazine) 63
Katie (female bodybuilder) 62
muscle is a feminist issue: conclusions
Katy (female bodybuilder) 90, 96
48–50; feminist reactions: female
Kaye (female bodybuilder) 77, 125–6
bodybuilder as feminist icon
Kiyone (male bodybuilder) 82–3, 84–5
39–44; feminist reactions: female
Klein, D. 7, 48, 67, 119, 120, 123, 127
bodybuilding as form of control over
Klein, Hans 35
women 44–8
Kyle, Iris 31
muscle worship: eroticism, fetishism
and muscle worship 75–7; female
lesbianism 108
bodybuilders as sexual commodities
Lewis, Sarah 115–16
84–5; introduction 74–5; TV
Lorde, A. 129
documentaries 74; women’s views
Lowe, Maria 48, 57, 65
77–80; worshippers 80–3
Lucie (female bodybuilder) 58, 67–8, 71,
‘muscle worship’ definition 75
109, 113
muscle worshippers 82–3
Lynn, Jenny 35
muscles and masculinity 40
Lyon, Lisa 28–9
National Amateur Bodybuilding
McLish, Rachel 29
Association (NABBA) 32
Madonna 38
National Broadcasting Company (NBC) 30
Manion, Jim 35
NBC see National Broadcasting Company
Marcia Ian (male bodybuilder) 109
New York Times 35
Marsh, Jodie 38
Martinez, Irma 64
Oriquen, Yaxeni 31
Mary (female bodybuilder) 62, 70, 78, 82,
Oxygen (magazine) 35
113, 126
‘Meets’ (American competitions) 144
Pariso, Betty 31
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice 11, 55
Patrick (male bodybuilder) 83
Michelle (female bodybuilder):
Pauline (female bodybuilder) 107
bodybuilder’s pump 124; comments
Phenomenology of Perception 11
from others 110; competitions 131,
Physique Women’s Contests 47
132–3, 135–50; eroticism 128; femininity
Pitts, Victoria 41, 62–3, 161
66; first encounter 14; food 69; future
primobolan depot (methenolone enanthate)
161–2; journey and key informant 9; key
95
informant 9, 14; meaning, purpose and
‘Pumping Iron II: The Women’ (film) 29
identity of bodybuilding 22; muscular
endeavour 71; muscularity 69; pain
Rachel (female bodybuilder) 62, 107, 125–6
126; physical abuse 112; ‘physical
regime of female bodybuilders 70–2
powers’ and self-defence 112; ‘pump’
Relations in Public 105
124; relationship with father 61; social
researching female bodybuilders:
situation in gym 21; steroids 61, 89–90,
conclusions 24–5; ethnography 12–13;
95–6; trenbolane 95; vascularity and
‘ethnographic self’ 16–17; field work
184 Index
and blending in 17–19; methods 13–16;
storying myself 1; body image 2–3; first
relationships in field 19–20, 20–4;
encounter with female bodybuilders
theory 10–12
1–2; gendered sports 2; injury and
researching female bodybuilders (scope/
obsession with weights 3–4
aim): description 6–7; ‘empowerment’
Superior Physique Association (SPA) 28
7–9
‘reverse anorexia’ (‘bigorexia’) 68
Tamoxifen (steroid) 92
Richardson, Niall 74–5, 80, 82
Teagan, Clive 139
ripped, shredded and cut: ‘pain and
testosterones (steroids) 95
violence’ in female bodybuilding:
textual symbolism 7
conclusions 130; erotics of gym: new
The Encyclopaedia of Unusual Sex
bodies, new pleasures 127–30; injuries:
Practices 75
being hard enough 120–1; introduction
Theroux, Louis 74, 81
117; pain and violence 118–20;
Thomas, Joanna 33
phenomenological experiences 123–7;
Title IX (second-wave feminist movement)
reading and interpreting pain 122–4
28
Rogers, Louise 37
‘tomboy’ term 2
Ryan, Kelly 35
trenbolane (steroid) 95
Ryland, Skye (female bodybuilder) 64
‘Twiggy’ body 29
Saltman, K. 105–6, 118, 121
United Kingdom Fitness and Bodybuilding
Samantha (female bodybuilder) 104, 124–6
Federation (UKBFF) 32–3, 78
Sandow, Eugene 32
United States Women’s Physique
Sarah’s story (female bodybuilder) 51–3,
Association (USWPA) 28
151–2
Sassatelli, R. 102–4
Walcott, Holly 38
Scarry, E. 121, 123
WARBA see World Amateur Bodybuilding
Schreiner, Anja 30
Association
Schwarzenegger, Arnold 30, 32, 127
Weider, Ben 30
‘sex work’ 85
weights room 105–7
sexed space: building gendered bodies
‘Weird Weekends’ (TV documentary) 74, 81
102–4
winstrol (stanozolol) 95
Sharon (female bodybuilder) 60, 68–9, 125
Wollenstonecraft, Mary 91
Slave (male bodybuilder) 81
Women’s Physique Bodybuilders (GB) 32
SPA see Superior Physique Association
‘working on the body’ 5
steroids: introduction 74, 85–6;
workout manuals 118
motivations, self-fulfilment and
World Amateur Bodybuilding Association
pleasures 88–91; physical effects 86;
(WARBA) 32
risk management 94–6; side effects,
negotiations and femininity 91–4;
Young, Iris Marion 11
trenbolane 95; women who take steroids
as doubly deviant 86–8
Zwick, Louis 35
Stigma: Notes on the Management of
Spoiled Identity 56
Document Outline
Title page
Copyright
Table of contents
Acknowledgements
Preface: Alice down the rabbit hole: my research journey through the fascinating world of female bodybuilders
1 Introduction
2 Researching female bodybuilders
3 The history of female bodybuilding
4 Muscle is a feminist issue
5 The identity, lifestyle and embodiment of the female bodybuilder
6 The ‘dark side’ of female bodybuilding
Confession of a muscle slave
7 Exploring the ‘empowerment’ of female bodybuilders through concepts of space