by Will Durant
50. Friedländer, III, 191.
51. Watson, P., Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, 297.
52. Castiglione, 244.
53. Galen, in Friedländer, I, 28.
54. Dio, lxii, 14.
55. Ammianus, xxv, 4.
56. Williams, H., I, 280.
57. Renan, Marc, 469.
58. Marcus, i, 17.
59. Bury, 547.
60. Hist. Aug., “Marcus,” xix, 7.
61. Marcus, x, 10.
62. Mommsen, Provinces, I, 253.
CHAPTER XX
1. Boissier, Tacitus, 2.
2. Tacitus, Agricola, 9.
3. Pliny’s Letters, ii, I ; vi, 16.
4. Agricola, end.
5. Germania, 25, 27.
6. Annals, iii, 65.
7. Historiae, i, 1.
8. Agricola, 4.
9. Germania, 34.
10. Annals, xvi, 33.
11. Ibid., iii, 18; vi, 22.
12. Germania, i, 33.
13. Agrícola, 46.
14. Annals, vi, 17.
15. Agrícola, 3.
16. Dialogue on Orators, 40.
17. Historiae, iii, 12, 64.
18. Agrícola, 18.
19. Historiae, i, 16.
20. Ibid.
21. Juvenal, i, 147.
23. X, 81.
24. VI, 652.
25. 434.
26. 448.
27. III.
28. XIV, 316.
29. X, 356.
30. Seneca, De beneficiis, i, 10; Epist., xcvii.
31. Pliny’s Letters, iii, 19.
32. V, 3.
33. 8.
34. I, 17.
35. VI, 32.
36. V, 16.
37. I, 16.
38. VII, 19.
39. VII, 20; IX, 23.
40. Boissier, Tacitus, 19.
41. Gibbon, I, 57.
42. Pliny’s Letters, iii, 12.
43. Strong, II, fig. 435.
44. Marcus, ii, 11.
45. VII, 75.
46. Ibid., 9; iv, 40, 27.
47. IV, 10.
48. II, 17.
49. III, 2.
50. X, 8.
51. IV, 23.
52. II, 17.
53. VII, 12.
54. XI, 1.
55. VIII, 10.
56. IV, 42,48; viii, 21.
57. VII, 3.
58. II, 1.
59. IX, 38; vii, 26.
60. VI, 48.
61. 44.
62. XI, 18.
63. IV, 49; viii, 61; ii, 5.
64. IV, 21; viii, 18; ii, 17.
65. IV, 14, 48; ix, 3.
66. Dio, lxxii, 2-3.
67. Hist. Aug., “Commodus,” 2, 14, 15.
68. Dio, lxxiii, 19.
69. Hist. Aug., 13.
70. Ibid., 2, 10, 11.
71. Paul-Louis, 215.
CHAPTER XXI
1. Pliny, Nat. Hist., iii, 6.
2. Dill, 239.
3. Fattorusso, J., Wonders of Italy, 473.
4. Herodotus, i, 196.
5. Strabo, v, 1.7.
6. Varro, Rerum rust., i, 2.
7. Pliny, iii, 6.
8. Strabo, v, 4.5.
9. Varro, Sat. Men., frag. 44, in Friedländer, I, 338.
10. Boissier, Cicero, 168.
11. Seneca, Epist. Ii.
12. Strabo, v, 4.3.
13. Reid, 3.
14. Dio, lxvi, 22.
15. Pliny’s Letters, vi, 16.
16. Ibid., 20.
17. Rostovtzeff, Mystic Italy, 52.
18. Mau, 491; Boissier, Rome and Pompeii, 430.
19. Id., La réligion romaine, II, 296.
20. Mau, 226, 148.
21. Ibid., 16.
22. Rostovtzeff, Roman Empire, 142; Dill, 194; Frank, Economic Survey, V, 98; Friedländer, II, 254.
23. CAH, XI, 587; Friedländer, II, 228.
24. As at Antium, Lanuvium, Tibur, Aricia.
CHAPTER XXII
1. Cicero, II, In Verren, iii, 207.
2. Tacitus, Annals, xii, 31.
3. Cicero, Pro lege Manilia, 6.
4. Plutarch, De reip. ger., 32.
5. Mommsen, History, II, 205.
6. Livy, xxv, 29.
7. Reid, 288.
8. Toutain, 269.
9. Bouchier, E., Life and Letters in Roman Africa, 73.
10. St. Augustine, Letters, 185.
11. Friedländer, I, 312.
12. Boissier, L’Afrique romaine, 181-2; Davis, 200.
13. Bouchier, 33.
14. Juvenal, vii, 148.
15. Apuleius, 41; a fine example of Adlington’s delectable translation (1566).
16. Book XI.
17. Books IV-VI.
18. Strabo, iii, 4.16.
19. Ibid., 3.7.
20. Ibid., 4.16-18.
21. Buchan, 310.
22. Gest, 201.
23. Caesar, Bello Gallico, ii, 30.
24. Pliny, xxxviii, 5.
25. Appian, iv, 7.
26. Strabo, iv, 4.5.
27. Ibid.
28. Caesar, v, 34.
29. Ammianus, xv, 12.
30. Caesar, vi, 14; Val. Max; ii, 6; Hammerton, J., Universal History of the World, III. 1524.
31. Caesar, vi, 14.
33. Arnold, W. P., The Roman System of Provincial Administration, 142.
34. Pliny, xviii, 72.
35. Frank, Economic Survey, V, 133f.
36. Pliny, xxxiv, 18.
37. Ibid., iii, 5.
38. Sidonius Apollinaris, Poems, xxiii, 37.
40. Jullian, C. Histoire de la Gaule, V, 35n.
41. In Mommsen, Provinces, I, 118.
43. See the statement of their case in Barnes, H. E., History of Western Civilization, I, 434.
44. Mommsen, History, V, 100.
45. Caesar, V, 12.
46. Tacitus, Annals, xiv, 29.
47. Tacitus, Agricola, 21.
48. Haverfield, F., The Roman Occupation of Britain, 213.
49. Id., The Romanization of Britain, 62; Collingwood and Myres, Roman Britain, 197; Home, G., Roman London, 93.
50. Strabo, iv, 5.2.
51. CAH, XII, 289.
52. Time, Mar. 17, 1941.
53. Tacitus, Germania, 14.
54. Strabo, vii, 1.2.
55. Seneca, De ira, v, 10.
56. Germania, 22.
57. Sumner, W. G., Folkways, 380.
58. Ibid., 316.
59. Germania, 20.
CHAPTER XXIII
1. Dio Chrysostom, Orat., vii.
2. Plutarch, “Demosthenes.”
3. In Trench, R. C, Plutarch, 40.
4. Ibid., 41.
5. In Glover, T. R., Conflict of Religions in the Early Roman Empire, 85.
6. Plutarch, Quaestiones Romanai; De Isise et osiride.
7. Plutarch, Moralia, introd., I, 15.
8. Ibid., 37.
9. Ibid., vol. II, pp. 123, 128, 131-2, 173.
10. Ibid., 140B.
11. De tranq. an., ix, 20.
12. Dio Chr., Orat., xii.
13. Epictetus, Discourses, i, 6.26.
14. Lucian, “Of Pantomime,” 2.
15. Id., “Demonax,” 57.
16. Apuleius, book X.
17. Alciphron, Letters, vi, p. 175.
18. Dio. Chr., Orat., lxxii.
19. Philostratus, Lives of the Sophists, 223f.
20. Renan, Christian Church, 167.
21. Our sole source for Demonax is an essay uncertainly ascribed to Lucian, and possibly colored with fiction.
22. Lucian, “Peregrinus Proteus.”
23. Renan, Christian Church, 166.
24. Lucian, “Demonax,” 55; Epictetus, Discourses, iii, 22.
25. Id., frag. 1.
27. I, 12, 21; vi, 25.
28. IV, 1.
29. I, 24.
30. II, 5.
31. I, 2.
32. Encheiridion, 8.
/> 33. Discourses, i, 6.
34. Ibid., 9.
35. 3, 9; ii, 8.
36. I, 29.
37. III, 24; ii, 6.
38. I, 16.
39. I, 18, 19; frag. 43.
40. III, 10.
41. Frag. 42.
42. Encheir., 33.
43. Discourses, ii, 10.
44. III, 12.
45. 13.
46. Frags. 54, 94.
47. Discourses, ii, 16.
48. I, 9.
49. Ibid., introd., xxviif.
50. In Sextus Empiricus, Hypotyposes Pyrr., 1, 36f, and Gellius, xi, 5.6. For details cf. Owen, J., Evenings with the Sceptics, I, 323-5.
51. Sextus, Hyp. Pyrr., ii, 204.
52. III, 29; i, 135-8.
53. III, 210.
54. Adv. Dogmaticos, i, 148; Hyp. Pyrr., iii, 9-11.
55. Ibid., i, 7.
56. Ibid., i, 8, 25.
57. III, 235; Adv. Dogm., i, 49.
58. CAH, XII, 449.
59. Lucian, “Icaromenippus,” 25.
60. “Zeus Cross-Examined,” 2-18.
61. “Zeus Tragoedus,” 53.
62. Dialogues of the Dead, x.
63. “Hermotimus,” end.
64. “Charon,” 2.
65. “Icaromenippus,” 17.
66. “Charon,” 24.
67. “Menippus,” 21.
68. Inge, W., Philosophy of Plotinus, I, 82.
CHAPTER XXIV
1. Josephus, Against Apion, ii, p. 480.
2. Charlesworth, 26; Frank, Economic Survey, II, 330.
3. Ibid., 337.
4. 445; Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History of the Hellenistic World, 1288.
5. Josephus, Wars, ii, 16.4; Frank, V, 245.
6. Breccia, E., Alexandria ad Aegyptum, 41
8. Dio Chr., xxxii, 69.
9. In Frank, V, 247; Mommsen, Provinces, II, 177.
10. Baron, S. W., Social and Religious History of the Jews, I, 196-7.
11. Edersheim, I, 61.
12. Josephus, Against Apion, ii, p. 489.
13. Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, ii, 4.
14. Graetz, H., History of the Jews, II, 186.
15. Philo, Quod Deus sit immutabilis, 12.
16. Philo, De mundi opificio, i, 4; Inge, I, 98.
17. Philo, De confusione linguarum, 28.
18. In Sachar, A., History of the Jews, 110.
19. Philo, De vita contemplativa.
20. Usher, A., History of Mechanical Inventions, 40.
21. Bailey, 314.
22. Sarton, G., Introduction to the History of Science, I, 274.
23. Ibid., 202; Heath, Sir, T., History of Greek Mathematics, II, 306.
24. Ammianus, xxii, 16-19.
25. Philostratus, in Friedländer, I, 171.
26. Bailey, 283.
27. Sarton, 283.
28. Himes, 86.
29. Garrison, 30, 110.
30. Sarton, 282; Castiglione, 202.
31. Ibid.; Himes, 90.
32. Haggard, H., Devils, Drugs, and Doctors, 23.
33. Galen, On the Natural Faculties, introd., xv.
34. Galen in Thorndike, L., History of Magic and Experimental Science, I, 117, 152.
35. Ibid., 143.
36. Williams, I, 278.
37. In Friedländer, I, 174.
38. Castiglione, 225.
39. Thorndike, I, 171.
40. Strabo, xvi, 4.
41. Doughty, C., Travels in Arabia Deserta, I, 40.
42. Josephus, Antiquities, xv, 9.
43. MacGregor, R., Greek Anthology, v,
44. Tr. by Goldwyn Smith in Symonds, J. A., The Greek Poets, 521.
45. Leslie, S., Greek Anthology, vii, 476.
46. Ibid., p. 17.
47. Ibid., ix, 489.
48. Greek Anthology, ix, 570.
49. Strabo, xv, 2.23.
50. Frank, IV, 158.
51. Rostovtzeff, Roman Empire, 135; CAH, II, 634.
52. Breasted, J. H., Oriental Forerunners of Byzantine Painting, pref.
53. CAH, XI, 638.
54. Ibid., 646.
55. In Mahaffy, Silver Age, 211.
59. Philostratus, Apollonius, iv, 7.
60. Aelius Aristides, Orat., xvii, 8, in Frank, IV, 750.
61. Philostratus, Lives of the Sophists, i, 25.
62. Ibid.
63. Longus, Daphnis and Chloe, ad init., in Heliodorus, Greek Romances.
64. Dio Cassius, lxx, 4.
65. Appian, Roman History, xiv, 16.
66. Ibid.
67. Pliny, xxv, 3.
68. Ibid., xxxiii, 14.
69. Appian, xii, 4.
70. Ibid., 7.
71. Ferrero, I, 83.
72. Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander, i, 12.
73. Reid, 376.
74. Williams, I, 255.
75. Strabo, i, 1.22-3.
76. Ibid., 3.5.
77. Dio. Chr., xlvi, 3.
78. Ibid., x, 21.
79. In Bigg, C., Neoplatonism, 70.
80. Ibid., 73.
81. Dio. Chr., xii, 10; xiii, 28; xiv, 18; xxiii, 7.
82. Friedländer, III, 299.
83. Frazer, Adonis, Attis, and Osiris, 157.
84. Cumont, F., Oriental Religions in the Roman Empire, 53.
85. Ibid., 55.
86. Frazer, 306; Boissier, La réligion romaine, I, 383; Dill, 549f.
87. Plutarch, De Iside; Dill, 577; Halliday, W., Pagan Background of Early Christianity, 240.
88. Tarn, 296; Dill, 582.
89. Cumont, 41, 93.
90. Breasted, J., Ancient Times, 660; Weigall, A., The Paganism in Our Christianity, 129.
91. Dill, 610.
92. Ibid., 601, 623.
93. Cumont, 158.
94. Guignebert, C, Christianity, Past and Present, 71.
95. Hatch, E., Influence of Greek Ideas upon the Christian Church, 283.
96. Frazer, Adonis, 229; Halliday, 317.
97. Hatch, 147.
98. Philo, De vita contemplativa, 18-40.
99. Lucian, “Alexander the Oracle-Monger.”
100. Philostratus, Apollonius, i, 14.
101. Ibid., 19; iv, 45.
102. I, 33-4.
103. Apollonius, epistles xliii and xiv in Philostratus.
104. Philostratus, iv, 3.
105. Ibid., viii, 29-31.
CHAPTER XXV
1. Appian, Roman History, xii, 15.
2. Frank, IV, 197.
2a. In the State Museum, Berlin; reproduced in Pope, A., Persian Art, IV, 134A.
3. Rawlinson, G., Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy, 423.
4. Plutarch, “Crassus.”
5. Sachar, 105.
6. Josephus, Antiquities, xiv, 2.9; Strabo, xvi, 240.
7. Josephus, xiv, 11.
8. Id., Wars, i, 21.
9. Antiquities, xv, 7; xvi, 5.
10. Ibid., xv, 8.
11. Ibid., 11.
12. Ibid.; Wars, v, 5; Foakes-Jackson and Lake, Beginnings of Christianity, I, 5-7; Schürer, Div. I, Vol. I, 280.
13. Antiquities, xvi, 7.
14. Our sole authority for this is Josephus, Ant., xv, 8.1.
15. Ibid., 10.
16. XVII, 5.
17. Klausner, J., Jesus of Nazareth, 145.
18. Moore, G., Judaism, I, 23.
19. Baron, I, 131.
20. Ibid., 192-3.
21. Antiquities, iv, 10.
22. Against Apion, p. 456.
23. Finkelstein, L., Akiba, 33.
24. Schürer, Div. II, Vol. I, 162; Moore, I, 82; Goguel, M., Life of Jesus, 471; Graetz, II, 54-5.
25. Zeitlin, S., The Jews, 43; id., The Pharisees and the Gospels, 237; CAH, IX, 408.
26. Josephus, Wars, i, 8.14.
27. Philo, Quod omnis homo, 86; Hypothetica, 11.4 and 12; Josephus, Antiquities, xviii, 1.
28. Josephus, Wars, ii, 8.
29. Ibid., 9.
30. Gr
aetz, II, 29; Ueberweg, F., History of Philosophy, I, 228.
31. Klausner, 231; Graetz, II, 145.
32. Josephus, Wars, ii, 8.
33. In Moore, I, 313.
34. Hastings, J., Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, s.v. Hillel.
35. Philo, in Eusebius, Praeparatio evangelica, viii, 7.
36. Babylonian Talmud, Abot, i, 42, Shab, 31a.
37. Abot, ii, 4.
38. Foakes-Jackson, 134; CAH, IX, 420.
39. Book of Wisdom, ii.
40. Ibid., v.
41. Isaiah, ix, 6.
42. Book of Wisdom, xviii, 13f.
43. Isaiah, liii.
44. Daniel, ii, 44; vii, 13f; Song of Solomon, xvii.
45. Sibylline Oracles, iii, 767f in Klausner, From Jesus to Paul, 159.
46. Isaiah, ii, 4; xi, 6; Book of Enoch, i-xxvi; Sib. Or., ii, 303f in Klausner, 150.
47. Book of Wisdom, iv; Enoch, cviii.
48. Book of Wisdom, ii-iii.
49. Finkelstein, 263.
50. Tacitus, Histories, v, 9.
51. Josephus, Wars, ii, 14.
52. Graetz, II, 239.
53. Josephus, l.c.
54. Ibid., v, if; Tacitus, v, 12.
55. Josephus, ii, 14.
56. Ibid., ii, 18.
57. Tacitus, v, 13.
58. Josephus, v, 11.
59. Dio Cassius, lxv, 4.
60. Josephus, ix, 3; Tacitus, v, 13.
61. Strabo in Josephus, Antiquities, xiv, 7.
62. Philo, Legatio ad Caium, 36.
63. Baron, I, 132-3; Bevan, E. R., Legacy of Israel, 29.
64. Josephus, Against Apion, ii, 3.
65. Josephus, Life of Flavius Josephus, p. 540.
66. Finkelstein, 141.
67. Baron, I, 191.
68. Dio Cassius, lxix, 12f; Renan, The Christian Church, 106.
69. Moore, Judaism, I, 93.
70. Finkelstein, 276.
CHAPTER XXVI
1. Reinach, S., Short History of Christianity, 22; Guignebert, Jesus, 63.
2. Josephus, Antiquities, xviii, 3.
3. Scott, E., First Age of Christianity, 46; Schürer, I, 143. This conclusion applies also to the Slavonic version of Josephus; cf. Guignebert, op. cit., 148.
4. Klausner, Jesus, 46; Goguel, 71.
5. Pliny the Younger, v, 8.
6. Tacitus, Annals, xv, 44.
7. Goguel, 94; Klausner, 60.
8. Suetonius, “Nero,” 16.
9. Id., “Claudius,” 25.
10. Acts of the Apostles, xviii, 2. Quotations from the New Testament are in most cases from the translation of E. J. Good-speed.
11. In Goguel, 9, 184.
12. E.g., Galatians, i, 19; I Corinthians, ix, 5.
13. I Cor., xi, 23-6.
14. Ibid., xv, 3; Gal., ii, 20.
15. Eusebius, E.H., iii, 39.
16. E.g., vi, 30-45; viii, 1-13, 17-20.
17. Klausner, From Jesus to Paul, 260.
18. Schweitzer, A., Quest of the Historical Jesus, 335.
19. Irenaeus, Contra Haereses, ii, 1.3.
20. Guignebert, Jesus, 30; CAH, XI, 260.
21. Guignebert, 467.
22. Foakes-Jackson and Lake, Beginnings of Christianity, I, 268.
23. Enc. Brit., X, 537.