Alexander the Great

by Philip Freeman

  The next morning, Alexander, accompanied by his closest friend Hephaestion, paid a visit to the Persian women personally to reassure them of their safety. When the two entered their quarters, the women fell on their faces before Hephaestion, thinking he was king as he was the taller of the pair, much to the amusement of Alexander. The Great King’s mother, Sisyngambris, was profuse in her apologies once the translator had explained the mistake, but Alexander was reassuring. He raised the elderly woman from the ground, addressing her as “mother,” and remarked that Hephaestion too was an Alexander—a reflection of the teaching both had received from Aristotle as boys that the truest friend was another self.

  Ancient writers made much of the treatment of Darius’ women as an illustration of Alexander’s kindly nature. While this may well be true, his benevolence was also eminently practical. By protecting the women of the Great King’s household, Alexander took on the symbolic role of son, husband, and father in the eyes of his new subjects. As with his adoption by Queen Ada in Caria, the Macedonian king was using family ties to build power. He decked the queen mother with jewelry and assured her that her dignity would in no way be lessened under his rule. To the wife of Darius, who was also the Great King’s sister, he promised that she would enjoy all former benefits of her station as queen and would be touched by no one, least of all him. He assured her that her two maiden daughters would be inviolate and would be granted dowries from his own treasury when the time came for them to wed. He then called the young son of Darius to him and kissed the boy, who was not frightened at all. Alexander admired the young lad’s courage and swore that he would raise him as his own son. It was all very moving, but from this day forward the family of Darius knew they were hostages of Alexander.

  The following day, after he had visited the wounded, Alexander called a formation of his entire army arrayed in their finest armor. He conducted a funeral for those who had fallen in battle, then honored the worthiest of the survivors with special citations and prizes equal to their bravery. The king appointed one of his bodyguards, Balacrus, as satrap of Cilicia and promoted other of his companions to new offices. Alexander was in such a forgiving mood after his victory that he even reduced the fine he had previously levied on the city of Soli. He also erected altars of thanksgiving to Zeus, Athena, and Hercules, offering grand sacrifices to these, his favorite gods. As a lasting monument to his victory, he now founded the first city of his campaign—-Alexandria, near Issus. While still a teenager, he had renamed a Thracian city for himself following his first military success, but this first of many Alexandrias was a new kind of city—a Macedonian settlement of Greek culture in a foreign land. Founded in a strategic location near the entry to Syria, it was an important first step in spreading Hellenic civilization, which the king would repeat all the way to India.

  Alexander had won glory and honor at Issus, but not the vast amounts of gold he had hoped for since Darius had left the bulk of his treasury at the Syrian city of Damascus, several days’ travel from the battlefield. The cache from Darius’ tent was all fine and good, but Alexander needed a great deal more if he was to pay for the rest of his campaign. He therefore sent Parmenion with a squadron of more than a thousand Thessalian cavalry at a fast gallop to Damascus to seize the treasury of the Great King before the Persians could get there. He may not have liked the old man, but Alexander knew Parmenion could accomplish this dangerous mission deep into enemy territory.

  The Persian satrap at Damascus was meanwhile considering his future very carefully. When he heard that Alexander had been victorious at Issus, he knew the Macedonians would be coming for the treasure. He therefore decided it was in his best interest to surrender the riches of Darius to Alexander in hope of preferred treatment. He sent a messenger to the Macedonians stating his intentions, but Parmenion immediately suspected a trap and headed into Syria with great caution. He crossed the Gates and moved south with his cavalry in spite of the winter cold through mountains and deserts until he at last arrived at the oasis town of Damascus.

  The Syrian city was the center of Persian government in this arid region. It was also a wealthy town in its own right, known for its figs and for its caravan trade east to Mesopotamia and south to Arabia. The crafty satrap had planned not only to surrender the Great King’s riches to Alexander, but also the many Persian guests and hostages who had been entrusted to him by Darius. To facilitate this exchange, he told the resident Persians that they would be fleeing with him to Babylon along with the treasure of Darius. Thousands of mules were hastily loaded with all they could carry, then the enormous caravan set out through the gates of the city.

  Snow had fallen that night. It was so cold that the attendants for the pack animals pulled out military uniforms from the baggage to cover themselves on the journey, while the crowd of frightened refugees shivered and hoped they could escape before the Macedonians arrived. It was at that moment that Parmenion and his cavalry troop appeared on the horizon. The general saw a column of men dressed as Persian soldiers and hastily arranged his men for battle, assuming they were in for a tough fight. The mule drivers and refugees saw the line of horsemen charging them and ran for their lives. Countless riches soon lay scattered in the snow and brambles along the trail. When Parmenion discovered that it was not an army he had attacked, he ordered his men to round up the treasure and refugees. He offered the mule drivers the choice of guiding the baggage animals back to Alexander or being killed on the spot.

  After many days under the watchful eye of Parmenion, the treasure caravan reached the Macedonian camp. Alexander was thrilled as the riches were unloaded—decorated vases, war chariots, royal tents, five hundred pounds of silver, a beautifully decorated box that the king henceforth used to hold his favorite edition of Homer’s poetry, and enough gold to pay his army for many months to come. But also among the precious cargo were the Persian refugees, who now became pawns of the Macedonian king. These included the wife and three maiden daughters of the previous Great King, Artaxerxes IV, as well as a brother of Darius himself. There were also two terrified envoys from Athens who had been dealing secretly with Darius in spite of their city’s official support for Alexander’s campaign. Four stoic Spartans were also captured, though their city had made no pledges to the Macedonians.

  The chief prize in the eyes of Alexander was Barsine, widow of his rival Memnon of Rhodes. She, along with her children, were presented to the king, expecting little mercy from Alexander. To her surprise, Alexander treated her with great kindness. Barsine had been a young refugee in the court of Philip years earlier when her father and Memnon had sought sanctuary there. She had probably known Alexander in Macedonia and the two may have been friends. There was certainly something unusual about Barsine, as she was the first woman Alexander fell in love with. He did not marry her, but the two began a long affair. She was by all accounts a brilliant, beautiful, and charming woman. She was Persian by birth, but had received an excellent Greek education and spoke the language well. In time, she would give birth to Alexander’s first child, a son named Hercules. The traitorous satrap of Damascus, however, had no such happy ending. One of the Persian refugees cut off his head in the night and escaped with it as a gift for Darius.

  While Alexander had been preparing to meet the Persians on the battlefield, the agents of the Great King in the Aegean had been busy. Memnon’s nephew Pharnabazus had captured several important islands and retaken Halicarnassus. He then sailed to the island of Siphnus for a clandestine meeting with an old enemy of Alexander—Agis, king of Sparta. Agis had arrived in a single trireme to meet with the Persians and seal a pact that would strengthen the second front against Alexander. The Spartan king received plentiful funds from Pharnabazus along with ten ships to conduct naval operations against the Macedonians.

  But just as the two were celebrating their new alliance, news arrived that Alexander had defeated the Great King at Issus. Pharnabazus was dumbfounded at the report and immediately set sail for Chios off the Asia Minor coast to
secure this important Greek island against rebellion. Agis was grimly undeterred by Alexander’s victory and continued with his plan. He hired sailors for his new ships and sent his brother to Crete to establish a new naval base there. Meanwhile Agis laid the groundwork for an uprising in Greece.

  Events in the Aegean did not escape Alexander, but he was faced with a difficult decision at this point in the campaign. Darius had been humiliated at Issus, but was not defeated. The army he had gathered in Syria represented only a small portion of the forces available to him. Given enough time, the Great King could summon a much larger force to defeat the Macedonians on the battlefield. Alexander knew his only chance of stopping Darius from building a new army was to chase him relentlessly into the heart of his empire. But this was a dangerous proposition given that the Greeks were rebellious and the Persians still controlled most of the Mediterranean. If he pursued Darius at this point, he might lose everything he had conquered in the west.

  As Alexander weighed his options, it seemed best to continue his plan to seize the Mediterranean coast of Lebanon, Palestine, and Egypt while his generals in Macedonia and Asia Minor tried to contain the Persian threat closer to home. He knew he would have to face Darius at some point as the Great King could not allow him to ravage his empire unpunished. Darius would need at least a year to gather his army from the four corners of his realm to face Alexander, but when that day came it would be the greatest battle the world had ever known.

  Alexander broke camp at Issus and marched over the Gates into Syria, then south toward the coast of Lebanon. He passed the ancient Greek trading colony at al-Mina near the mouth of the Orontes River, then traveled along the narrow plain between the sea and mountains until he arrived at the Phoenician town of Marathus. But the Phoenician ships of the Great King’s fleet were not there to oppose him because they were busy in the Aegean. The local king of Marathus had in fact left his son in charge of the town while he served Darius in the west. The prince knew it was pointless to stand against Alexander, so he met the king before the city gates and bestowed upon him a golden crown, the traditional token of submission. The young man also surrendered the nearby island of Aradus and the city’s inland possessions.

  Alexander was pleased with the reception he received and stayed at Marathus several days. While he was there two envoys from Darius arrived with a letter from the Great King. Alexander took the document into his private quarters and read it to himself. The contents of the letter vary according to different ancient historians, but it is clear that Darius was willing to make a deal. He began by chastising Alexander for invading his empire under no provocation. He pointed out that the Persians and Macedonians were old friends, though Philip had shown a notable lack of respect toward Persia now continued by his son. The outcome of the recent battle in Alexander’s favor was the unfortunate result of some god’s mysterious intervention, though the Macedonians could not count on heaven’s blessing in the future. Even so, the Great King was merciful and invited Alexander to conclude a peace treaty with Persia. If he withdrew, he would grant him sovereignty over all the territory of Asia Minor from the Aegean to the Halys River near Gordium. In addition, he would pay Alexander a generous ransom for the return of his captive family. All this could be Alexander’s if he would cease his invasion of the Great King’s realm. If he were to reject this generous offer, it was understood that Darius would unleash his army against the Macedonians at a time and place of his own choosing and destroy them.

  Alexander knew that if he presented this letter to Parmenion or any of his officers, they would surely rejoice. Darius was offering them everything they had ever dreamed of. They would hold the richest parts of Asia Minor including all the Greek cities of the Aegean. The Persians would recognize their conquests and withdraw their navy. Macedonia would have grown in their lifetimes from a beleaguered minor kingdom to an empire ruling all the lands from the Adriatic to the highlands of Anatolia. They would all be rich men and could return home as heroes.

  But Alexander had to find a way to convince his men to continue the war. He had tasted victory and would not settle for less than the entire Persian Empire as his own. He saw himself and his army marching along the Nile, dining among the gardens of Babylon, covering themselves with gold at Persepolis, and marveling at the wonders of distant India. But how to convince the Macedonians? The plan he devised was a favorite tactic of politicians throughout the ages—he lied. The king composed a forgery of Darius’ letter full of unreasonable demands, insults toward the Macedonians, and no mention at all of territorial concessions. When he presented it to his council of advisors, they took the bait and angrily rejected the Great King’s terms out of hand.

  Alexander then composed his own letter to Darius, skillfully crafted to provoke the Great King in every possible way. He began with the condescending heading “King Alexander to Darius—-Greetings,” omitting the Persian ruler’s titles as a very deliberate insult. He then went on to blame Darius for the current war since his ancestors had started it when they invaded Greece at Marathon in the previous century. He then implicated the Persians in the murder of his father and even accused Darius of collusion in the assassination of the previous Persian king. Alexander declared himself Lord of Asia, saying he would gladly return the Great King’s family to him without ransom only if Darius would appear before him as a lowly suppliant. Finally, he warned Darius to surrender immediately or he would pursue him to the ends of the earth.

  Two days of marching along the coast brought Alexander to the important Phoenician trading center of Byblos. This ancient port had enjoyed commercial relations with Greece since the time of the Trojan War. Byblos had long been a shipping center for Egyptian goods, including papyrus, so that the Greeks who first used this material for scrolls called their books biblia after the town (thus our word Bible).

  South of Byblos was Berytus (Beirut) on a prominent headland, then the famous Phoenician port of Sidon halfway down the coast of Lebanon. The people of Sidon despised the Persians, especially after their rebellious town had been sacked by the Great King’s armies just a few years earlier. The Persian puppet ruler was forced by the populace to open the gates to Alexander, who promptly deposed the hated ruler and appointed his best friend Hephaestion to find a replacement. Hephaestion was staying in the town at the home of two distinguished young men to whom he offered the crown in turn. They politely declined, explaining that it was the custom of their city only to be ruled by a king of noble blood. Alexander’s friend then commissioned them to find a suitable candidate.

  Living on the edge of town was a poor man named Abdalonymus (or in Phoenician, Abd-elonim, “servant of the gods”) who was distantly related to the royal family of Sidon. His honesty in business dealings among his crafty Phoenician neighbors had left him only his tiny hut with a struggling garden. He was so busy that day clearing the weeds from his vegetables that he didn’t hear the two young men approach until they hailed him, calling him king. Abdalonymus had no time for jokes and dismissed the pair, but they explained that he needed to change his dirty clothes if he was going to rule Sidon. The gardener thought they were crazy and turned back to his weeds, but the young men finally convinced him by fearful oaths that their message was true. Abdalonymus hadn’t even heard of Alexander and had no idea the town was occupied by Macedonian troops, but he put on his best clothes and went to the palace to meet the man who had driven off the Persians. Alexander liked the man at once and saw in him the paradigm of a just ruler in spite of—or perhaps because of—his dirty fingernails and sun-scorched brow. He happily anointed Abdalonymus the new king of Sidon.

  A day’s march south along the Lebanese coast was Tyre, the most powerful and important of all the Phoenician cities. It was an ancient rival of Sidon and one of the richest trading centers in the whole Mediterranean. The main part of the city was located on an island well offshore and surrounded by walls more than a hundred feet high, making it virtually untouchable by any invading army. It was also the most v
ital naval base for the Persians in the western part of their empire.

  As Alexander approached the city, he was met by Tyrian envoys who welcomed him to their city with provisions for his army and a golden crown of submission. They regretted that their king, Azemilcus, was not there to greet him personally, but he was indisposed while serving with the Persian fleet in the Aegean—all a regrettable misunderstanding, of course. Alexander thanked them courteously for the supplies and the crown, then casually mentioned that he would like to offer sacrifice to his ancestor Hercules at his famous temple on their island. He had arrived at Tyre just at the start of the celebrated festival of Melqart—the Phoenician equivalent of Hercules—along with religious pilgrims from as far away as Carthage. The Tyrian envoys took council together, then informed the Macedonian king that it was unfortunately impossible to allow him into the city at the moment as this might seem a provocation to the Persians. However, there was a very nice temple of Hercules on the mainland opposite their city that he was most welcome to visit.

  Both parties in this discussion knew they were not really talking about a simple act of sacrifice. The Tyrian envoys realized that if they allowed Alexander inside their walls, he would take over the city and post a garrison there. Alexander knew that Tyre was not really submitting to him but merely buying time to see if the naval offensive of Darius in the Aegean would force him to return to the west. The merchant rulers of Tyre did not particularly care if Alexander or Darius won the war. They wanted only to maintain their very profitable trading dominance in the Mediterranean as they had for over a thousand years, with as little outside interference as possible.

  Alexander was normally able to control his fierce temper, but he did not handle rejection well. He leapt up from his chair and vented the full measure of his wrath on the Tyrian envoys: “Do you really think you are safe from me because you live on an island? Do you despise this army of foot soldiers so much? I am going to show you that you do not live on an island at all! You will either welcome me into your city or I will besiege it!”