Alexander the Great

by Philip Freeman

  Bucephalas: Thessalian stallion with an ox-shaped mark tamed by Alexander as a boy and ridden by him in his conquests across the Persian Empire. He died in India and was honored by Alexander, who named a city after him.

  Calanus: Indian holy man who accompanied Alexander back to Persepolis. He died there in a spectacular public suicide.

  Callisthenes: Born in Olynthus, a town destroyed by Philip, he was a nephew of Aristotle and official historian of Alexander’s expedition. He fell from favor after he opposed Alexander’s proskynesis policy and was executed for his alleged involvement in the Pages’ Conspiracy.

  Caria: Coastal region of southwest Asia Minor in modern Turkey conquered by Alexander in 334. The chief city was the port of Halicarnassus.

  Carthage: Phoenician colony and naval power in modern Tunisia founded from Tyre in the early first millennium B.C. It supported Tyre in resisting Alexander and was reportedly on his list for conquest at the time of his death.

  Celts: A collection of related tribes dominating central Europe at the time of Alexander. Celtic envoys met Alexander on the Danube in 335 and established a treaty of friendship with him.

  Chaeronea: Town in central Greece where in 338 Philip defeated the Greek forces, including the Sacred Band of Thebes. It was also Alexander’s first major battle.

  Chares: Chamberlain of Alexander from the Greek island of Lesbos who wrote a long and colorful history of court life under the king.

  Cilicia: Coastal region in southeast Asia Minor near the modern border between Turkey and Syria. Alexander took Tarsus, the chief city of the area, in 333.

  Cleitarchus: late-fourth-century B.C. historian of Alexander whose lengthy work was a major source for later historians.

  Cleitus the Black: Macedonian nobleman and brother of Alexander’s nurse. He saved Alexander’s life at the Granicus but later criticized him at a drinking party in Samarkand and was killed by the drunken king.

  Cleopatra: A common female name among the Macedonian nobility. One so named was the full sister of Alexander married to Alexander of Epirus, while another was the niece of Attalus and seventh wife of Philip.

  Coenus: Noted Macedonian soldier who was the son-in-law of Parmenion. He sided against his brother-in-law Philotas in 330, but spoke up for the troops at the mutiny on the Hyphasis River in 326. He died soon thereafter.

  Corinth: Strategic Greek city west of Athens that was the setting for Philip’s League of Corinth, established after the battle of Chaeronea in 338. It provided nominal independence and a unified voice to member Greek city-states, but was in fact dominated by Macedonia.

  Craterus: Important commander of Alexander’s at Issus, Gaugamela, and in the eastern campaigns. He participated in the removal of Philotas and Parmenion. Alexander sent him back to Greece just before his death to escort decommissioned troops and replace Antipater in Greece.

  Curtius Rufus: Roman historian of the second century A.D. known in his history of Alexander for his rhetorical flourishes and frequent criticisms of the king.

  Cyrene: Greek colony on the north coast of Africa west of Egypt in modern Libya. It submitted to Alexander in 331.

  Cyrus the Great: King who founded the Persian Empire and rose during the mid–sixth century from ruler of a small territory subject to the Median king to master of an empire stretching from central Asia to the Mediterranean.

  Danube: European river rising in the Alps and emptying into the Black Sea. Alexander crossed it in 335 and subdued the tribes on his northern border before his invasion of Asia.

  Darius I: Persian nobleman who seized control of the empire in 522 and invaded Greece in 490, only to be defeated by the Athenians at Marathon.

  Darius III: Became Persian king in 336 after the murder of Artaxerxes IV and fought Alexander at Issus and Gaugamela. He was murdered by Bessus in 330.

  Delphi: Famous oracle of Apollo in the mountains of central Greece. Alexander visited the holy site soon after becoming king and extracted a favorable prophesy from the priestess of the god.

  Demaratus: Native of Corinth and veteran of wars in Sicily, he was a friend of Alexander’s father who some say bought the famous horse Bucephalas for Alexander. He later accompanied Alexander to Asia and died shortly before the Indian campaign began.

  Demosthenes: Famed Athenian orator and vociferous opponent of both Philip and Alexander.

  Dion: Sacred site in southern Macedonia at the foot of Mount Olympus. It was here that Alexander acquired his horse Bucephalas.

  Ecbatana: Modern Hamadan in western Iran, it was the Median capital and major palace center under the Persian Empire.

  Elam: An ancient kingdom in the southwest of modern Iran conquered by the Persians. Susa was its largest and most prosperous city.

  Epirus: Roughly modern Albania, this mountainous region west of Macedonia was the homeland of Alexander’s mother, Olympias.

  Gaugamela: Near modern Mosul in northern Iraq, it was here in October of 331 that Alexander won his decisive victory over Darius.

  Gedrosia: Inhospitable desert region in southeastern Iran through which Alexander marched his army on the return from India to Babylon.

  Gordian Knot: Gordium was the capital of ancient Phrygia in central Asia Minor. A famously difficult knot around the yoke of an ancient wagon was undone here in 333 by Alexander, some say by unloosing and others by slashing through it with his sword.

  Granicus: Modern Kocabas River in northwest Turkey, where Alexander won his first great battle against the Persians in 334.

  Halicarnassus: Now Bodrum on the southwestern coast of Turkey, it was an important Greek city of Caria holding the celebrated tomb known as the Mausoleum. Alexander took the city after a difficult siege in 334.

  Harpalus: Boyhood friend of Alexander’s from upper Macedonia who served the king as treasurer. He deserted Alexander before the battle of Issus, but was forgiven and reinstated, only to desert him again in 324 before Alexander returned to Babylon.

  Hephaestion: Boyhood friend and intimate companion of Alexander who rose to important military commands later in the Asian expedition. When he died suddenly at Ecbatana in 324, Alexander was inconsolable and buried his friend with extravagant honors.

  Hercules: In Greek, Heracles. This is the name of both the famed divine hero of Greek myth—considered an ancestor by Alexander—and the son of the king by his mistress Barsine.

  Herodotus: Greek historian of the fifth century B.C. from Halicarnassus who wrote a colorful history of much of the known world.

  Hindu Kush: A mountain range stretching from northern Pakistan to northeast Afghanistan with peaks soaring up to 25,000 feet. Alexander crossed the high passes of this range several times during his campaign.

  Homer: Famed Greek poet of the eighth century B.C. who composed the Iliad and Odyssey. Alexander modeled himself on the hero Achilles from the Iliad and reportedly slept with a copy of the poem under his pillow.

  Hydaspes: The modern Jhelum River in Pakistan, where Alexander defeated the Indian king Porus in 326.

  Hyphasis: The modern Beas River in northern India, where a mutiny of his men forced Alexander to turn back from his planned invasion of the Ganges valley.

  Hyrcania: Region on the southern shore of the Caspian Sea in modern Iran. Alexander conquered the area in 330.

  Illyria: Roughly the former Yugoslavia, it was an ancient region of the Balkan peninsula north of Epirus and west of Macedonia. Philip gained control over these lands for Macedon, while Alexander confirmed his power there in an early campaign in 335.

  India: The ancient name for the lands stretching from the Indus river valley to the East, especially the region of Punjab. For Greeks such as Alexander, the term encompassed the entire subcontinent, including both modern Pakistan and India.

  Isocrates: Athenian orator and early advocate of a united Greek invasion of Persia.

  Issus: Along the coastal border between modern Turkey and Syria, in 333 it was the site of a decisive victory of Alexander over Darius.

&
nbsp; Jaxartes: Flowing into the Aral Sea, the modern Syr Darya was the northeastern boundary of the Persian Empire and the scene of fierce fighting by Alexander. He founded the city of Alexandria Eschate (“the farthest”) on its banks.

  Justin: A Roman who may have lived in the third century A.D. who wrote an epitome of the now lost history of the rule of Alexander’s father Philip by Pompeius Trogus.

  Leonidas: Severe boyhood tutor of Alexander with a reputation for frugality who once rebuked Alexander for using too much incense at a sacrifice. With this in mind, Alexander sent him plentiful frankincense and myrrh seized during his Asian campaign.

  Lydia: Region of western Asia Minor near the Aegean coast in modern Turkey famous for its cavalry. Its capital Sardis was a key city of the Persian Empire in the west.

  Lysimachus: One of Alexander’s boyhood tutors. He had a special affection for Homer that he instilled in Alexander from his early years. He was rescued by his former pupil when threatened with death from exposure in the mountains above Tyre. This is also the name of one of Alexander’s commanders who ruled Thrace after the king’s death.

  Macedonia: The region of modern Greece north of Mount Olympus bordered in ancient times on the east by Thrace, on the south by Thessaly, and on the west by Epirus and Illyria.

  Magi: Though their exact function is poorly understood, these religious professionals performed sacred rituals and preserved oral history among the Medes and Persians. In Greek tradition, as in the New Testament nativity story, they were frequently associated with astrology.

  Malli: A powerful tribe of the Indus River valley. Alexander was almost killed at one of their cities during an assault on its walls.

  Marathon: Coastal site to the east of Athens where in 490 the Greeks defeated the invading army of the first Great King Darius.

  Mazaeus: Persian nobleman who served Darius at the battle of Gaugamela, but then quickly switched sides and helped Alexander take over Babylon. Alexander made him satrap of Babylonia, the first Persian he appointed to such a high post.

  Medes: In Greek thought, Medes were often confused with their cousins the Persians, but they were in fact a separate people from the northern area of modern Iran. Ecbatana was their capital. Cyrus the Great conquered their kingdom and freed the Persian tribes from their control.

  Memnon: Greek general from the island of Rhodes who served Darius well until his untimely death in 333. He was married to Barsine, daughter of the Persian satrap Artabazus. He fought at the Granicus and held Alexander back at Halicarnassus before eventually withdrawing to continue the war in the Aegean.

  Nearchus: Boyhood friend of Alexander from Crete. He first served as a satrap in Asia Minor, then as a naval commander on the rivers of India. He led Alexander’s fleet back from India to the Tigris, later recording his exploits in a lost text that was a major source for the historian Arrian.

  Olympia: Town in western Greece where the Olympic games were held every four years.

  Olympias: Wife of Philip and mother of Alexander. Born in Epirus, she was brilliant, resourceful, ambitious, and sometimes cruel as she strove to assure Alexander’s place on the throne of Macedonia. After Philip’s death, she remained in Macedonia, though in close communication with Alexander while he conquered Persia.

  Olympus: By tradition the seat of the gods, this towering mountain almost ten thousand feet high marked the southern boundary of Macedonia.

  Olynthus: Greek city on the Chalcidic peninsula to the east of Macedonia destroyed by Philip in 348 after it intrigued with Athens against him. It was the home of Alexander’s official historian, Callisthenes.

  Onesicritus: Greek student of the philosopher Diogenes who served as helmsman for Alexander’s fleet. His lost work described India and portrayed Alexander as a philosopher as much as a warrior.

  Oxus: The modern Amu Darya, which rises on the northern border of Afghanistan and flows into the Aral Sea. It was the northern border of ancient Bactria.

  Pages’ Conspiracy: An alleged murder plot in 327 by the sons of Macedonian nobles who served Alexander as attendants. Callisthenes was falsely accused of conspiring with the pages and executed.

  Parmenion: Macedonian nobleman and chief general of Philip who also served Alexander. He is frequently portrayed in the ancient sources as overly cautious in contrast to the daring young Alexander. He was killed on Alexander’s orders in 330 soon after the execution of his son Philotas.

  Pasargadae: Royal Persian burial site near Persepolis where the tomb of Cyrus the Great still stands.

  Pausanius: A young bodyguard of Philip who murdered him in 336 after reportedly suffering vile abuse at the hands of Philip’s companions.

  Pella: A notable city of Macedonia as revealed by archaeological excavations. It replaced Vergina (ancient Aegae) as administrative capital in the late fifth century B.C.

  Perdiccas: A common name among Macedonian nobility, Perdiccas, son of Orontes, was a military leader and bodyguard of Alexander’s who succeeded Hephaestion as cavalry commander in 324. He was chosen as guardian of Alexander’s son by Roxane, but perished in the wars of the successors.

  Persepolis: A chief residence of the Persian kings in the heartland of ancient Persia near modern Shiraz, Iran. Alexander burned the palace there in 330, but accounts of his motives vary. Excavations have revealed an impressive city with stunning royal reliefs.

  Persians: A people of Indo-Iranian speech related to the Medes and more distantly to the tribes of northern India. They were originally warlike tribesmen from the region around Persepolis, but through Cyrus and his successors gained control of the largest empire the world had yet known.

  Peucestas: A Macedonian who saved Alexander’s life during an assault on an Indian city of the Malli. He was promoted to bodyguard and eventually satrap. He was one of the few important Macedonians genuinely to embrace Alexander’s policy of orientalism.

  Philip of Acarnania: Greek physician who saved Alexander’s life in 333 before the battle at Issus.

  Philip II: Alexander’s father, husband of Olympias, and man chiefly responsible for turning Macedonia from a struggling secondary power into a mighty empire. He was murdered in 336.

  Philotas: Oldest son of Parmenion, he was condemned to death by Alexander’s order in 330, closely followed by the murder of his father.

  Phoenicia: Roughly equivalent to modern Lebanon, this coastal land of the cities Tyre and Sidon was the home of the wide-ranging Phoenicians.

  Plutarch: Born in the mid–first century A.D., a biographer of famous Greeks and Romans who was a favorite source for Shakespeare. Native to Chaeronea in central Greece, he wrote a moralistic account of Alexander that is our only significant source on the king’s early life.

  Porus: King of the Pauravas in the Punjab region of India, Porus was reportedly a brave and honorable king who fought Alexander well at the battle at the Hydaspes River in 326, but was pardoned and reinstated to his throne afterward. He was later murdered by the Macedonian commander at Taxila.

  pothos: A Greek word indicating a deep desire or yearning. It was used by the historian Arrian to describe the motive of many of Alexander’s more audacious and questionable actions.

  proskynesis: A Greek word used for religious worship, but applied to varying acts of obeisance performed before the Persian king. Alexander’s efforts to incorporate proskynesis into his court ceremonies met heated resistance by the Macedonians.

  Ptolemy: Childhood friend and trusted military commander of Alexander’s on his campaign against the Persians. He later seized Alexander’s body and became king of Egypt, founding a dynasty that ended with the celebrated Cleopatra. His lost memoirs on Alexander’s expedition were a key source for later historians, especially Arrian.

  Punjab: Literally “the land of the five rivers” stretching across northern regions of modern Pakistan into India. Alexander campaigned here in 326.

  Roxane: Daughter of the Bactrian nobleman Oxyartes. She married Alexander in 327 just before his invasion of India
. Her son, Alexander IV, was his father’s only legitimate heir. Both she and her son were murdered in 311.

  Samarkand: Ancient Markanda, the capital of ancient Sogdiana, lies on the old Silk Road in Uzbekistan. It was a center of Alexander’s campaigns starting in 329.

  Sardis: Ancient capital of Lydia in western Asia Minor, it surrendered to Alexander in 334.

  sarissa: An iron-tipped wooden spear up to eighteen feet long used with devastating effect by the well-drilled Macedonian infantry.

  satrap: A Persian term borrowed by Alexander for the governor of a province.

  Scylax: Sailor from Caria in Asia Minor who served the first Great King Darius and explored the sea route from India to Egypt.

  Seleucus: Known later as Nicator (“conqueror”), he served in Alexander’s later campaigns and gained control of Babylonia after Alexander’s death. He founded a dynasty that for a time ruled much of Alexander’s Asian empire.

  Semiramis: Legendary queen of Babylon who reportedly led an army through the Gedrosian desert, losing almost all her soldiers on the way.

  Sisyngambris: Mother of Darius captured at Issus, she was reportedly treated with great respect by Alexander and committed suicide in grief after his death.

  Siwa: A large oasis on the modern border between Libya and Egypt. It was home of the oracle of Ammon, visited by Alexander in 331.

  Sogdiana: Ancient region to the north of Bactria that encompasses much of modern Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Alexander campaigned here beginning in 329.

  Sparta: Greek city renowned for its military prowess. It had faded in power by Alexander’s day, but under its king Agis it rose to challenge Macedonian control of southern Greece, only to be soundly defeated by Alexander’s regent Antipater.

  Spitamenes: Nobleman of Sogdiana who led the resistance to Alexander after the death of Bessus. He staged an effective guerrilla war against the Macedonians for more than a year before being captured and executed.

  Susa: The ancient capital of Elam in what is now southwestern Iran, it was an administrative capital of the Persians. Alexander took the city without bloodshed in 331 and staged a mass wedding here in 324.