The Gap

by Thomas Suddendorf

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  INDEX

  Absence of evidence, vs. evidence of absence, 57, 60, 82, 208

  Accounting, invention of, 270, 271

  Acheulean stone tool industry, 252–254, 253(fig), 254n17, 256, 259(fig)

  Adolescence, 226–227, 227n7

  Aesthetics, 143–144, 277n6

  Afar Triangle, Ethiopia, 242, 244

  Africa, early humans in, 233–234, 235(fig), 236, 240–248, 249n, 253, 256, 261–262, 266

  Age ratio, of human populations, 263–264, 264n22

  Aggression. See also Violence; War

  cooperative, 12–13, 30–31, 202–203, 208. See also Hunting behavior

  and eye contact, 124

  human, 12, 189–190, 194, 265n26, 281

  Agriculture, advent of, 103, 270, 281

  Alcohol, drinking, 223

  Altruism, 160n3, 162, 163, 172, 192n6, 198

  reciprocal, 161, 163, 164, 172, 187, 188, 191–192, 191n5, 194, 198

  Alzheimer’s dementia, 69n6

  Amnesia, 91, 91n1, 94

  infantile, 100

  Analogical reasoning, 68–70, 136, 149–150

  Anthropogenesis, 239, 239n4

  Anthropomorphism, 41–42

  Apes, great. See Bonobos; Chimpanzees; Gorillas; Great apes; Orangutans

  Apes, small. See Gibbons

  Aquatic ape theory, 239n4

  Ardipithecus, 240–242

  Aristotle, 30, 139, 272

  Art, of prehistoric humans, 262–263, 263(fig)

  Artificial fruit tasks, 178–179, 180(fig). See also Puzzle box

  Artificial mutation, 282

  Artificial selection, 281, 281–282

  Asia, 17, 20, 21, 22, 159, 234n1, 235, 236, 249n11, 254n17, 256, 264, 267

  Associative learning, 42, 43n2, 44n4, 51, 73, 73n10, 74–75, 83, 93, 104, 105, 107, 108, 109n6, 110, 110n6, 146–147, 148, 147–148, 151, 152, 152n12, 176–177 />
  vs. insightful reasoning, 152

  Australia, 7n4, 58, 134, 139, 164, 166n9, 166, 173, 175, 177, 181, 218, 235, 285, 286

  languages of, 69n6, 75

  Rockhampton Zoo 29, 30(fig), 47, 286

  Australian aboriginals, 45, 69n6, 75, 166, 166n9, 232–233

  Australophithecines, 242–246, 248, 263

  Australopithecus afarensis, 238(fig), 242, 242(fig), 243, 243n7, 244, 260

  Australopithecus africanus, 236, 238(fig), 243, 249n12

  Australopithecus anamensis, 238(fig), 243

  Australopithecus bahrelghazali, 238(fig), 244

  Australopithecus gahri, 238(fig), 244

  Australopithecus sediba, 11n6, 238(fig), 245

  feet, 243n8

  fossilized footprints, 243

  loss of fur, 244, 244n9

  social group size, 255

  tool use, 244

  Autapomorphy, 77, 77n11

  Autism, 118, 168, 220

  Baboons, 2, 17, 31, 53, 155, 226

  infanticide, 203, 208

  problem solving, 155

  and social norms, 207–208

  and tactical deception, 46, 47, 126

  Bacteria, 106, 159–160, 229n9

  Bats, 60, 80, 134, 172

  Bees, 64, 81, 134, 215

  Behavioral and Brain Sciences (journal), 118, 119

  Behavioral synchrony, 169n11

  Behaviorism, 9, 42, 53, 73, 73n10, 107, 119, 152

  behavioral conditioning, 53, 54n11. See also Associative learning

  Bekoff, Marc, 207, 209

  Better Angels of Our Nature, The (Pinker), 12, 189, 212, 281

  Bias

  and foresight, 99, 197, 198, 201n11

  and reasoning, 139, 197

  in research, 40–42, 43n3, 64

  and self-deception, 93, 200, 200n10

  Bininj Gun-Wok people, Arnhem land, Australia, 75

  Biodiversity, declining, 102, 275

  Bipedalism, rise of, 240–241, 243, 246

  Birds, 2, 52, 60–61, 64, 173, 186, 235. See also Crows, Parrots, Scrub jays

  corvids, 147–148,

  memory, 104–105, 109n6

  problem solving, 134, 144, 147–148, 148, 149, 149n10, 152n3

  social learning, 174, 175

  sound imitation, 64, 82, 86, 177

  tool use, 147–148, 149, 152n13, 175

  Bischof, Norbert, 90, 108

  Bischof-Köhler, Doris, 108, 109

  Blindness, and theory of mind, 115n2

  Blushing, 197, 208, 208n18

  Boesch, Christophe, 22, 182

  Bonobos (Pan paniscus), 29, 32–34, 33(fig), 237

  diet of, 32, 33

  as endangered, 34, 34n11, 282–283

  and foresight, 109–110

  Kanzi, 83, 84, 85, 86, 154, 210

  personhood for, 210–211

  prosocial behavior, 206, 210

  and sex, 33

  Boring, E. G., 136

  Boysen, Sally, 84, 86

  Brain, structure and function, 8, 17

  in adolescence, 226, 227, 227n7

  Broca’s area, 64n2, 254, 261n21

  hippocampus, 91, 94, 104, 216–217

  human vs. animal, 8, 34–38, 225

  and language, 64, 254

  lunate sulcus, 243, 243n6, 243n7

  and memory, 91, 94

  metabolic, 34

  mirror neurons, 168, 177

  neocortex, 17, 36n12, 255, 255n18

  neurons, 34, 36n12, 37, 38, 38n14, 168, 177

  olfactory bulb, 15, 38

  parietal lobes, 94, 243n6

  periaqueductal gray, 80–81

  prefrontal cortex, 38, 94

  primate, 8, 15, 17, 18, 34, 36(fig), 36n12, 37, 37(fig), 38

  temporal lobes, 8, 94

  visual cortex, 38, 243, 243n6

  Wernicke’s area, 64n2

  Brain size

  and diet, 35, 247, 250

  encephalization quotient, 35–36, 36(tab), 36n12

  excess brain mass above that predicted by body size, 37(fig)

  of hominins, 240, 243, 248, 249, 250, 251, 254, 256, 260, 264

  infant human vs. chimpanzee, 225

  and intelligence, 34–38, 36n12, 156n14, 280, 282

  and overheating, 250, 250n13

  selected animals and humans, 34–38

  and social group size, 17, 24n6, 36n12, 255

  Breathing, mouth, 250

  Breeding, cooperative, 227–228, 227n8, 239

  Broca’s area, 64n2, 254, 261n21

  Buddha, 271

  Bunopithecus (hoolocks), 20

  Burial sites, prehistoric, 259(fig), 260, 261, 263, 266

  Call, Josep, 51, 128, 131, 150, 151, 151(fig), 152n12

  Cannibalism, 203, 235, 258, 266

  Capital punishment, 194, 281

  Capuchin monkeys and brain size, 35–37, 36(tab), 37(fig)

  chameleon effect, 178n15

  and mirror self-recognition, 53, 54n12

  problem solving, 149, 183

  sharing and fairness, 206, 208

  tool use, 17

  vocalizations, recorded, 79

  Carnivores, 155, 181, 206n16, 241, 247, 250

  Cassie (Chimpanzee), 47, 53(fig), 138n, 178, 179(fig), 286

  Cats, 35, 36(tab), 52, 155, 181, 241

  Cave of Forgotten Dreams (film, Herzog), 262

  Cave painting, 260, 261, 262–263, 263(fig)

  Celibacy, 90, 98

  Cephalopods, communication, 81–82, 134

  Cetaceans, 134, 175, 178. See also Dolphins; Whales

  Chad, 240, 244

  Chameleon effect, 169, 178n15

  Chauvet Cave, France, 262

  Cheating, 51, 114, 140, 163, 163n6, 164, 172, 191, 192, 196n7, 198, 200–201

  Cheney, Dorothy, 80, 155

  Child development. See Human development

  Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), 29–32, 30(fig), 50(fig), 53(fig), 125(fig), 179(fig)

  brain size, vs. human infant, 225

  and cooperation, 12, 17, 30, 31, 126, 131, 132, 172, 173, 183, 202, 203, 206, 207n17

  and delayed gratification, 109, 211

  diet of, 31

  DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) of, vs. human DNA, 6, 6n3, 239–240

  empathy, 204, 205–206, 207

  as endangered, 32, 282–283

  excess brain mass above that predicted by body size, 37(fig)

  and eye contact, 124, 124n5, 125(fig)

  facial expressions, 204n13

  and following gaze, 128

  and foresight, 108, 109, 110

  and social norms, 208–209

  as hunters, 17, 31, 205

  and imitation, 177, 178–180

  mating habits, 29–30, 205n15, 228

  and mirror self-recognition, 52–53, 53(fig), 54n12, 61–62, 278–279

  murder, 30–31, 202–203, 211

  and object permanence tasks, 50–51, 50(fig)

  painting by, 65–66, 65(fig)

  personhood for, 210–212

  and pointing, 126, 131

  pretend play, 46–48

  problem solving, 31, 50–51, 110, 119, 126, 131, 138n3, 146–147, 148, 149, 150–152, 152n12, 155, 172–173, 174, 178–180

  reciprocal altruism, 172, 173

  and representational insight, 84

  sharing, 205–206

  and sign language, 83, 84, 84n14, 205

  and social learning, 31–32, 174–175, 178, 179–180

  split from hominins, 6, 239, 240

  teaching, 182–183

  temperament, 29, 277

  and theory of mind, 118, 119, 126, 127, 129, 130

  tool use, 31–32, 148, 182–183

  and violence, 12–13, 30–31, 127n7, 202–203, 205n14

  working memory, 153–154

  China, Homo erectus in, 249(fig), 249n11, 252

  Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), 199

  Chomsky, Noam, 63, 73, 73n9, 73n10, 75, 76, 85, 197

  Chunking, memory, 14
0, 141, 142, 153, 156

  Cinderella effect, 161n4

  Clayton, Nicola, 104, 147

  Cleopatra, 231, 232

  Clever Hans effect, 41–42, 47, 107, 147

  Climate change

  and evolution, 11, 240–241, 246, 252n16, 258

  and the future, 275–276

  Cognition, physical vs. social, 132, 132n8

  Collier-Baker, Emma, 23(fig), 28(fig), 47, 51, 58, 59(fig), 151(fig), 178, 286, 287

  Colobus monkeys, 17, 31

  Commerce, advent of, 270

  Common descent, and shared traits, 60–62

  Competition, 128–129, 130, 189, 205, 229, 236, 245, 247, 265, 265n26, 266, 267

  Composite tools, 257, 260

  Compound words, 70, 70n7, 71

  Concentration camps, World War II, 186, 187n3, 201

  Confucius, 232, 271

  Consciousness, 9, 55, 91n1, 105, 127, 140, 199, 200, 211, 218

  Conservation, 21n4, 26, 26n7, 28n8, 29, 32, 32n10, 34, 34n11, 282–283

  Constant, Roger, 263

  Contraception, 281–282

  Convergent evolution, 60–61

  Conversational maxims, 76–77, 78

  Cooperation, 159–178, 207n17. See also Culture; Morality

  and aggression, 12–13, 30–31. See also Violence; War

  cross-cultural, 193, 194–195

  and cultural evolution, 187, 190

  and division of labor, 221

  Homo erectus, 255

  Homo heidelbergensis, 256

  and hunting 31, 32, 33, 205, 256

  and morality, 187, 191, 192

  and reciprocal altruism, 161, 162, 163, 164, 172, 187, 188, 191–192, 191n5, 194, 198

  rules for, 164

  and primates, 12, 17, 30, 31, 126, 129, 131, 132, 172, 173, 183, 202, 203, 206, 207n17

  Copernicus, 3

  Coppens, Yves, 240

  Corballis, Michael, 63, 78, 81n12, 85n15, 90, 117, 218, 261, 285, 286

  Corvids, 147–148, 148, 149. See also Crows; Scrub jays

  Cosmides, Leda, 10, 163n6

  Creation (Vidal), 271

  Creation myths, 44, 45, 271

  Creativity, and intelligence, 142–144

  and animals, 144, 145, 156

  and recursive thought, 143–144

  Crows, New Caledonian

  problem solving, 148, 149, 149n10, 152n13

  and social learning, 175

  tool use, 147, 148, 152n13, 175

  Crystalized intelligence, 137, 228

  Culture 157–183

  animal, 173–178

  cumulative, 164–165, 175, 176, 180n16, 183, 216, 220, 254