and evolution, 16, 219, 239
and festivals, 222, 223
and overimitation, 180–181, 180(fig)
pillars of, 167–170
and storytelling, 221–222
and teaching 167, 169–170, 173, 181–183
and transmission, 157, 168–170, 173, 175, 176, 177–178, 180–181, 180n16, 222
Curiosity, 22, 155
Cuttlefish, communication, 81–82
Cyril, Archbishop of Alexandria, 272
Da Vinci, Leonardo, 171
D’Amato, Michael, 108–109
Dart, Raymond, 236, 243, 243n7
Darwin, Charles, 5, 5n2, 6, 7, 78, 135, 143, 166, 189, 208n18, 279, 281
on civilization, 195
continuity in evolution of mind, 7, 8, 9, 10, 40–41, 43, 79
The Descent of Man, 6, 9, 78
on group selection, 265, 265n25
on imagination, 45, 143
on mirror self-recognition, 52
on morality, 185, 186, 198n8, 209
On the Origin of Species, 5, 8, 9
Darwin Awards, 98–99
Dawkins, Richard, 106, 163, 165–166, 167
De Waal, Frans, 30, 33–34, 33(fig)
levels of human morality, 187, 190–191, 195–196, 202, 205, 209, 210
Death, knowledge of, 55, 89–90, 102, 111
Deception. See also Lying; Bias
self-, 76, 93, 200–201
tactical, 46–47, 80, 125–126, 127, 127n7, 128
Decontextualization, 142, 156
Denisovans, 13, 236, 238(fig), 264, 266
Dennett, Daniel, 40, 114n1, 157, 158
Depression, 94, 226
Descartes, René, 7, 9
Descent of Man, The (Darwin), 6, 9, 78
Design stance, 114n1
Designing, definition, 144
Diamond, Jared, Guns, Germs, and Steel, 12
Dickinson, Anthony, 104
Diet
bonobos, 32, 33
and brain size, 250
chimpanzee, 31
gorilla, 27
homo habilis, 247
homo erectus, 250, 251, 252
Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis), 258
orangutan, 23–24
Paranthropus, 246
Diffusion experiments, 174
Disgust, 118, 185, 196n7, 203
Divergent-thinking tasks, 143–144
Division of labor, 221, 270, 280
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
across world populations, 233–235, 235(fig), 266–267
chimpanzee vs. human, 6, 6n3, 239–240
Denisovans, 264
and genomes, 278
gorilla, 26, 240
mitochondrial, 233, 234, 258
Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis), 13, 258, 259
website, genographic project, 234n2
Dogs, 41, 94–95, 201–202, 208, 262
classical conditioning, 93, 107
domestication, 281
encephalization quotient (EQ), 36(tab)
following gaze and points, 128, 131
and object permanence tasks, 50, 51
and self-recognition, 52, 54
and sense of time, 103–104
and word learning, 83, 103
Dolphins
and analogical reasoning, 150n11
echolocation and, 134
encephalization quotient (EQ), 36(tab)
and mirror self-recognition, 54
and object permanence tasks, 50
and social learning, 175, 178
trained, 83, 103, 178
uncertainty monitoring, 145
Doomsday seed bank, Norway, 102
Dr. Doolittle (Lofting), 79
Dreams, 45, 45n5, 98, 262
Dreamtime, 45
Drugs, psychoactive, 223
Dunbar, Robin, 17, 36n12, 122, 254–255, 255n18, 255n19
E. coli bacteria, 106
East Side Story, 240–241
Easter Island, 235, 270n1, 271n3
Echolocation, 80, 134
Edison, Thomas Alva, 78, 79
Eidetic (photographic) memory, 93n2, 154, 204n13
Einstein, Albert, 142, 191, 280–281
Electromagnetic fields, and animal navigation, 134
Elephants, 34–35, 36(tab), 38n14, 54, 66n3, 147, 265
Embedded thinking, 73, 77, 80, 85, 87, 95, 117, 122, 140, 142, 145, 153, 154, 217–218. See also Nested scenario building; Recursion
Embodied cognition, 8
Emotions, and facial expressions, 118, 204, 204n13, 208
Empathy, 114, 115, 127, 162n5, 168, 186, 187, 194, 195
in animals, 34, 204–205, 207
Emulation, 177n14
Encephalization quotients (EQs), 35–36, 36(tab), 36n12
Endangerment, of species, 21, 22, 26, 282–283
bonobos, 34, 34n11, 282–283
chimpanzees, 32, 32n10, 282–283
gorilla, 28, 28n8
great apes, 26, 27, 28, 29, 282–283
orangutans, 26, 26n7, 282–283
small apes, 21–22, 21n4
English language, 68, 69, 71, 73n9, 74
vs. German, 69, 70
Enlightenment, The, 194–195, 273
Environmental pollution, 102, 199, 213, 274–275
Episodic foresight, 94–96, 106, 107, 110. See also Mental time travel
Episodic memory, 91, 91n1, 92, 93, 94, 95, 101, 104–105. See also Mental time travel
animals and, 104–107
and episodic foresight, 94, 94n3, 101, 106, 110
purpose of, 92–94
as unreliable, 92, 95, 105
Ethology, 9, 80, 162n5, 173
Eugenics, 281
Evidence of absence, vs. absence of evidence, 57, 60, 82, 208
Evil, nature of, 201
Evolution. See also Darwin
and the cognitive niche, 229
convergent, 60, 61
cultural, 76, 157, 164, 165–167, 166n8, 187, 190, 224, 279
and diet, 246, 247, 250, 251, 252
and foresight, 96–97, 99–100, 106, 242, 250, 253, 265, 283
hominin, 6, 12, 233–267
and language, 67–68, 69–70, 75–76, 78–80, 81n12, 99, 166, 171, 254–255, 260–261
and mental time travel, 90, 93, 100, 106
and natural selection, 5, 7, 76, 78, 81n12, 93, 218, 229, 242, 265n25, 279, 280
ongoing, 279–282
and social intelligence, 16, 17, 125, 219
and theory of mind, 125–126, 126n6
and working memory, 141, 142, 154
Evolutionary biology, 10
kin selection and inclusive fitness, 160, 160n3, 161, 172, 228
and language, 75–76
Evolutionary psychology, 9–10, 17, 161n4, 163n6, 189, 279
Evolutionary theory, in a nutshell, 5n2
Extinction and hominin activity, 11–13, 213, 229, 235, 236, 246, 250, 265–266, 274, 282–283
of modern humans, 280–281
and climate change, 11, 246, 259
Eye contact, 115, 115n2, 124–125, 124n5, 219
and aggression, 124
Eye structure, human vs. nonhuman primates, 2, 124
Facebook, 273
Facial expression, and emotion, 118, 204, 204n13, 208
Fairness, 187, 188, 192, 196, 205, 208
Falk, Dean, 243n7
False beliefs, and theory of mind, 119–121, 123, 124, 125–126, 130–131, 144
Farming. See Agriculture
Faux pas, 122
Fire, control of, 25, 103, 222n3, 239, 251, 251n14, 251n15, 256, 260
Fission-fusion societies, 29, 33–34
Flexibility
and culture, 165, 173, 176, 181, 182,
and intelligence, 108, 131, 134, 142, 144, 144n7, 145–146, 155, 156, 209, 218, 229, 252
and language, 80, 81, 100
and foresight, 95, 98, 102, 107, 108, 110–111
Fluid intelligence, 137
&nb
sp; Foraging behavior, primate, 17. See also Diet
Foresight, 89–111. See also Mental time travel
and animals, 106–110, 109n6, 110–111
vs. clairvoyance, 98–99
and cooperation, 159, 181, 202n12, 275–276
and episodic memory, 94, 94n3, 101, 106, 110
and evolution, 96–97, 99–100, 106, 242, 250, 253–254, 265, 283
and human development, 100–102, 102n4
and mind reading, 117, 158, 199
Form follows function, 5n2, 166
Fossey, Dian, 22, 27
Fossils, hominin, 234, 236–261, 238(fig), 263–266
FOXP2 gene, 261n21
Free will, 97, 117, 198–200
Freeloaders, 163, 172n13, 192, 200
Freud, Sigmund, 9, 73n10, 100, 223
Future, forecasting the, 89–111, 275–276. See also Foresight
Galdikas, Birute, 22, 25
Gallup, Gordon, 52, 53, 55
Galton, Sir Francis, 135
Game theory, 191n5
Gap, 1–283
creation of, 11–13, 229, 233, 266–267
future of, 279–283
size of, 10, 42–44, 43n2, 43n3, 221
“Gappist” vs. “Gapanier,” 70
Garner, Richard, 78–79, 80, 82
Gazing behavior, following gaze, 2, 115, 123, 124n5, 128
Gender, and mind reading, 117–118
Generativity
of design, 143, 144
and divergent thinking 143–144, 144n7
of language, 71, 72, 73, 76, 80, 85–87, 143
and scenarios, 95, 99, 111, 142, 143, 156, 217, 267
Genetic engineering, 281, 282
Genetic similarity, of close relatives, 160, 160n2
Genetics, 233–235. See also DNA
Genome, 1, 6n3, 13, 13n7, 26, 258, 278, 279
George III, king of England, 3
German language, 69–71, 74, 155
Germany
author’s roots, 69, 90, 105, 185, 231, 232
human fossils and artifacts, 256, 257, 262
World War II, 185–186, 186n1, 187n3, 195, 201
Gibbons, 19–22, 20(fig), 34, 36(tab), 37(fig), 51n8, 58–60, 59(fig), 61(fig), 152, 278–279
Gigantopithecus, 11
Gilbert, Dan, 197
Stumbling on Happiness, 99
Globalization
and loss of cultural diversity, 171
and media technologies, 116, 273–274
Golden Rule, The, 194
Goodall, Jane, 22, 30, 31n9, 34, 125, 174, 202–203, 211
Jane Goodall Institute website, 32n10
Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla and Gorilla beringei), 15–16, 22, 26–29, 27(fig), 28(fig)
as endangered, 28n, 28–29, 282–283
diet of, 17, 27
empathy, 204, 205
encephalization quotient (EQ), 36(tab)
excess brain mass above that predicted by body size, 37(fig)
genetic relationship to humans, 240, 244, 245n10
genome, 26
infanticide, 203
Koko, 47, 48, 83, 85
lowland gorillas, 27, 28(fig), 29
and mirror self-recognition, 52, 52n9, 54n12, 61
mountain gorillas, 26, 27, 27(fig), 28
and object permanence tasks, 50, 51, 52
pretend play, 47, 48
problem solving, 28, 146–147, 151
tactical deception, 46
Gorillas in the Mist (film), 22
Gossip, 116, 164, 210, 254–255, 274
Gould, Stephen Jay, 10, 79, 225
Grammar, 71, 72–73, 74, 75–76, 82, 86–87, 197
Grandmother effect, 228, 229, 250–251, 264
Gratification, delayed, 109, 198, 211
Gray, Russell, 147, 175, 286
Great Ape Project, 211
Great apes, 10, 19, 20, 21, 22–34, 37, 38, 38n14, 57, 57n15, 59, 61, 144, 178, 181, 183, 204n13, 217, 219, 224, 260–261. See also Bonobos; Chimpanzees; Gorillas; Orangutans
curiosity, 155–156,
as endangered, 282–283
and foresight, 108, 109–110
life expectancy, 18, 228
and mirror self-recognition, 52, 54n12, 278–279
motor control, 81n12, 82
and object permanence tasks, 50, 51
personhood for, 210–212
pretense, 46–48
problem solving, 146–152, 155
and sign language, 48, 81n12, 83–86, 83n13, 84n14
and social learning, 178, 181
and theory of mind, 126–132
Great Rift Valley, 240–241, 241n5, 244
Greed, 90, 98, 109, 190
Greek myths, 103, 223
Grooming behavior, 16, 17, 172, 174, 204, 222
and self, 52, 59
and social group size, 254–255
Group selection, 265, 265n25, 266
Guilt, 196n7, 199–200, 201, 208, 210
Guns, Germs, and Steel (Diamond), 12, 286
Gutenberg printing press, 272–273
Hainan black crested gibbon (Nomascus hainanus), 22
Hamilton, William D., 160, 160n3
Handedness, 64n2
Hands, 2, 15, 23, 81n12, 155, 174, 252
and grips, 241, 247
“Handy man” (Homo habilis), 11, 238(fig), 246–248, 248(fig), 264
Haplogroups, 233, 234–235
Haplorrhini (dry nose), 17
Hare, Brian, 128, 129, 281
Herman, Louis, 83, 178
Heroism, 162, 191, 220, 221, 265, 283
animal, 205
Herschel, John, 4, 5, 224, 229, 273, 276
Herschel, Wilhelm, 3, 4, 273
Herzog, Werner, Cave of Forgotten Dreams (film), 262
Hill, Andrew, 20(fig), 24(fig), 51(fig), 152, 152n12, 287
Hippocampus, 91, 94, 104
place cells, 216–217
Hitler, Adolf, 186n1, 281
Hobbes, Thomas, 189, 190, 202, 203
“Hobbits” (Homo floresiensis), 10, 236, 264–265
Holloway, Ralph, 243n7, 254
Holocaust, 185–186, 187n3, 195
Hominid, definition, 19
Hominins, 11–13, 19, 236–267, 238(fig). See also Ardipithecus, Australopithicines; Homo species; Neanderthals; Paranthropus species
interbreeding, 13, 236, 245n10, 266–267
as prey, 241, 242
split from chimpanzees, 239–240
Homo antecessor, 238(fig), 256
Homo erectus, 10, 11, 238(fig), 248–256, 249n12, 264–265, 266
diet of, 250, 251, 252
Nariokotome Boy, 248–249
and scenario building, 252–253
Homo ergaster, 11, 11n6, 238(fig), 249n11
Homo floresiensis (“Hobbits”), 10, 236, 238(fig), 264–265
Homo georgicus, 238(fig), 249n11
Homo habilis (“Handy man”), 11, 238(fig), 246–248, 248, 248(fig), 249n12, 264
Homo heidelbergensis, 238(fig), 249n12, 256, 257(fig)
and nested scenario building, 256, 257
Homo rudolfensis, 11n6, 238(fig), 248, 254
Homo sapiens, 11, 238(fig). See also Human development; Humans
archaic, 256–257, 260, 266
Homo sylvestris, 18
Homology, 60–62, 237, 279
Hoolock (Bunopithecus), 20
Horses, 36(tab), 41–42, 256, 262, 281
Human development, 44
adolescence, 226–227, 227n7
and adoption of norms, 192, 193, 222
bonding, 115, 115n3, 169n11, 222, 254
and concepts of time, 100–102
and cooperative child-raising, 227, 228, 239
and creativity, 143–144
and delayed gratification, 109, 198
and dependence, 100, 224, 225
and false beliefs, 119–124, 144
and foresight, 100–102, 102n4
and grandparents, 228, 229, 250–2
51, 264
infants and pointing behavior, 115, 116, 123, 188
juvenile stage, 226
and language skills, 73, 74–75, 115–116
life expectancy, 227, 228
and memory, 100–102
and mirror self-recognition, 52–53, 53n10, 55–57, 56n13, 56n14,
and morality, 187–189, 192–193, 194, 196
and nature vs. nurture, 224n4
neoteny, 225
and object permanence, 49–52
and pretend play, 45, 47, 48, 49, 55, 57, 123, 217
and reciprocal altruism, 163, 164, 187, 188–189, 194, 198
and representational insight, 66–67, 66n4, 84
romantics and killjoys, 44n4
and scenario building, 95–96, 114, 217–218, 221
and shared intentionality, 99–100, 131–132, 207, 219–220
and storytelling, 221–222
and working memory, 141
Humans. See also Hominins; Homo species
earliest, 233, 234, 234n1, 235, 261.
brain size, 34
Encephalization quotient (EQ), 36(tab)
excess brain mass above that predicted by body size, 37(fig)
social group size, 255, 255n19
Humpback whale songs, 81, 177
Humphrey, Nick, 16, 117
Hunt, Gavin, 147, 175
Hunter-gatherer societies, 12, 192, 226, 227, 228, 262, 270, 270n2
Hunting behavior
cats, 155, 181
cooperative, 31, 32, 33, 145, 182, 205, 206n16, 256
depiction, by early humans, 262
early humans, 133, 235, 241, 247, 250, 251, 254, 256, 258, 260, 262
and intelligence, 145, 146
primates, 17, 23, 31, 32–33, 205
spiders, 144–145
Huxley, Aldous, 63, 63n1
Huxley, Thomas Henry, 8, 34, 37, 41
Hyoid bone, 260
Hypocrisy, 192n6
Hypothesis development, 4, 5, 61–62, 217, 276, 276–277, 276n5
Iceman (Ötzi), 96–97, 266
Idioms, 68–70
Imagination, 44–48, 49, 57, 78, 89, 90, 94, 95, 96, 99, 108, 109, 114, 209, 216, 217, 219, 220, 221, 223, 224, 257, 263(fig)
and affect, 196–198
and culture, 223–224
and recursive thought, 117, 140–142, 143–144
Imitation, 167–169, 173, 176–181, 183, 221
and apes, 25, 178–181, 179(fig), 183
in infancy, 100, 167–168
overimitation, 168, 179–181, 180(fig), 183
sounds, 177
Imitation vs. emulation, 176n14
Imprinting, 173
Inca Empire, ransacked, 12
Incest taboo, 90, 191n4, 194
Indirect reciprocity, 164, 183, 192, 193
Indo-European languages, 75
Indonesia, 18, 232. See also Orangutans, Sumatra
Homo erectus (“Java Man”), 249n11, 252, 264–265
Homo floresiensis (“Hobbits”), 236, 264
Infancy, definition, 225
Infanticide, 202–203, 208, 211
Infants
The Gap Page 44