Fields of Blood

by Karen Armstrong

  19. Georges Duby, “The Origins of Knighthood,” in The Chivalrous Society, p. 165.

  20. Foundation Charter of King Edgar for New Minster, Winchester, in Southern, Western Society and the Church, pp., 224–25.

  21. Ordericus Vitalis, Historia Ecclesiastica, in Southern, Western Society and the Church, p. 225.

  22. Brown, Rise of Western Christendom, p. 301.

  23. Georges Duby, The Three Orders: Feudal Society Imagined, trans. Arthur Goldhammer (London, 1980), p. 151; Riley-Smith, First Crusade, p. 3.

  24. Marc Bloch, Feudal Society, trans. L. A. Manyon (London, 1961), pp. 296, 298.

  25. Georges Duby, The Early Growth of the European Economy: Warriors and Peasants from the Seventh to the Twelfth Century, trans. Howard B. Clarke (Ithaca, NY, 1974), p. 49.

  26. Duby, “Origins of System of Social Classification,” pp. 91–92.

  27. The first extant formulations of this system have been found in a poem by Adalbéron of Laon (c. 1028–30) and Gesta episcoporum cameracensium by Bishop Gerard of Cambrai, c. 1025; but there may have been earlier versions. George Duby, “Origins of Knighthood,” p. 165.

  28. Bishop Merbad of Rennes, cited in J. P. Migne, ed., Patrologia Latina (Paris 1844–64), vol. 1971, pp. 1483–34; Baldric of Bol, in Patrologia Latina, vol. 162, pp. 1058–59: R. I. Moore, The Formation of a Persecuting Society: Power and Deviance in Western Europe, 950–1250 (Oxford, 1987), p. 102.

  29. Maurice Keen, Chivalry (New Haven, CT, and London, 1984), pp. 46–47.

  30. Thomas Head and Richard Landes, eds., The Peace of God: Social Justice and Religious Response in France Around the Year 1000 (Ithaca, NY, 1992); Tomaz Mastnak, Crusading Peace: Christendom, the Muslim World, and Western Political Order (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, 2002), pp. 1–18; Duby, Chivalrous Society, pp. 126–31; H. E. J. Cowdrey, “The Peace and the Truce of God in the Eleventh Century,” Past and Present 46 (1970).

  31. James Westfall Thompson, Economic and Social History of the Middle Ages (New York, 1928), p. 668.

  32. The Council of Narbonne (1054), in Duby, Chivalrous Society, p. 132.

  33. Glaber, Historiarum V:i:25, cited in Mastnak, Crusading Peace, p. 11.

  34. Duby, “Origins of Knighthood,” p. 169.

  35. P. A. Sigal, “Et les marcheurs de Dieu prirent leurs armes,” L’histoire 47 (1982); Riley-Smith, First Crusade, p. 10.

  36. Riley-Smith, First Crusade, pp. 7–8.

  37. Ibid., pp. 17–27.

  38.Urban, Letter to the Counts of Catalonia, cited ibid., p. 20.

  39. Matthew 19:29.

  40. Mastnak, Crusading Peace, pp. 130–36.

  41. Sigal, “Et les marcheurs de Dieu,” p. 23; Riley-Smith, First Crusade, p. 23.

  42. Riley-Smith, First Crusade, pp. 48–49.

  43. “Chronicle of Rabbi Eliezer bar Nathan,” in The Jews and the Crusaders: The Hebrew Chronicles of the First and Second Crusades, trans. and ed. Shlomo Eidelberg (London, 1977), p. 80.

  44. Guibert of Nogent, De Vita Sua II:1, cited in Monodies and On the Relics of the Saints: The Autobiography and a Manifesto of a French Monk from the Time of the Crusades, trans. and ed. Joseph McAlhany and Jay Rubinstein (London, 2011), p. 97.

  45. Henri Pirenne, Economic and Social History of Medieval Europe, trans. I. E. Clegg (New York, 1956), pp. 7, 10–12.

  46. John H. Kautzky, The Political Consequences of Modernization (New York, London, Sydney, and Toronto, 1972), p. 48.

  47. Georges Duby, “The Transformation of the Aristocracy,” in Chivalrous Society, p. 82.

  48. Norman Cohn, Pursuit of the Millennium: Revolutionary Millenarians and Mystical Anarchists of the Middle Ages (London, 1984), pp. 68–70.

  49. Duby, “The Juventus,” in Chivalrous Society, pp. 112–21.

  50. Cohn, Pursuit of the Millennium, p. 63.

  51. Riley-Smith, First Crusade, p. 46.

  52. Ralph of Caen, Gesta Tancredi, Recueil des historiens des croisades, ed. Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (1841–1900) [RHC], 3, cited in Riley-Smith, First Crusade, p. 36.

  53. E. O. Blake, “The Formation of the ‘Crusade Idea,’ ” Journal of Ecclesiastical History 21, no. 1 (1970); Mastnak, Crusading Peace, pp. 56–57.

  54. The Deeds of the Franks and the Other Pilgrims to Jerusalem, trans. Rosalind Hill (London, 1962), p. 27.

  55. Fulcher of Chartres, A History of the Expedition to Jerusalem, 1098–1127, trans. and ed. Frances Rita Ryan (Knoxville, TN, 1969), p. 96.

  56. Riley-Smith, First Crusade, p. 91.

  57. Ibid., pp. 84–85, 117.

  58. John Fowles, The Magus, rev. ed. (London, 1997), p. 413.

  59. Mastnak, Crusading Peace, p. 66.

  60. Deeds of the Franks, p. 91.

  61. Raymond in The First Crusade: The Accounts of Eyewitnesses and Participants, ed. and trans. August C. Krey (Princeton, NJ, and London, 1921), p. 266.

  62. Fulcher, History of the Expedition, p. 102.

  63. Raymond in Krey, First Crusade, p. 266.

  64. Robert the Monk, Historia Iherosolimitana, RHC, 3, p. 741.

  65. Fulcher, History of the Expedition, pp. 66–67; Robert the Monk, Historia, p. 725; Riley-Smith, First Crusade, p. 143.

  66. Keegan, History of Warfare, p. 295.

  67. Bernard, In Praise of the New Knighthood, 2:3, 2, 1, cited in In Praise of the New Knighthood: A Treatise on the Knights Templar and the Holy Places of Jerusalem, trans. M. Conrad Greenia, OCSO (Collegeville, MN, 2008).

  68. Ibid., 3:5.

  69. Amin Maalouf, The Crusades Through Arab Eyes, trans. Jon Rothschild (London, 1984), pp. 38–39. The figures quoted by Ibn al-Athir are clearly exaggerated, since the city’s population at this time was no more than ten thousand.

  70. Michael Bonner, Jihad in Islamic History (Princeton, NJ, and Oxford, 2006), pp. 137–38.

  71. Izz ad-Din ibn al-Athir, The Perfect History X.92, in Arab Historians of the Crusades, trans. and ed. Francesco Gabrieli (London, Melbourne, and Henley, 1978).

  72. Carole Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (Edinburgh, 1999), pp. 75–81.

  73. Maalouf, Crusades Through Arab Eyes, pp. 2–3.

  74. Bonner, Jihad in Islamic History, pp. 139–40; Emmanuel Sivan, “Genèse de contre-croisade: un traité damasquin de début du XIIe siècle,” Journal Asiatique 254 (1966).

  75. R. A. Nicholson, The Mystics of Islam (London, 1963), p. 105.

  76. Ibn al-Qalanisi, History of Damascus 173, in Gabrieli, Arab Historians of the Crusades.

  77. Kamal ad-Din, The Cream of the Milk in the History of Aleppo, 2:187–90, ibid.

  78. Maalouf, Crusades Through Arab Eyes, p. 147.

  79. Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani, Zubat al-nuores, in Hillebrand, Crusades, p. 113.

  80. All quotations are from Ibn al-Athir, Perfect History, 11:264–67, in Gabrieli, Arab Historians of the Crusades.

  81. Baha ad-Din, Sultanly Anecdotes, ibid., p. 100.

  82. Ibn al-Athir, Perfect History, ibid., pp. 141–42.

  83. Ibn al-Athir, Perfect History, in Maalouf, Crusades Through Arab Eyes, pp. 205–6.

  84. Christopher J. Tyerman, “Sed nihil fecit? The Last Capetians and the Recovery of the Holy Land,” in J. Gillingham and J. C. Holt, eds., War and Government in the Middle Ages: Essays in Honor of J. O. Prestwich (Totowa, NJ, 1984); Norman Housley, The Later Crusades, 1274–1580 : From Lyons to Alcazar (Oxford, 1992), pp. 12–30; Mastnak, Crusading Peace, pp. 139–40.

  85. Two contrasting views are given in R. W. Southern, The Making of the Middle Ages (New Haven, CT, and London, 1953), pp. 56–62, and Steven Runciman, A History of the Crusades, 3 vols. (Cambridge, UK, 1954), 2:474–77.

  86. Hillenbrand, Crusades, pp. 249–50.

  87. David Abulafia, Frederick II: A Medieval Emperor (New York and Oxford, 1992), pp. 197–98.

  88. John Esposito, Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam (Oxford, 2002), pp. 43–46; David Cook, Understanding Jihad (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, 2005), pp. 63�
�66; Bonner, Jihad in Islamic History, pp. 143–44; Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, Conscience and History in a World Civilization, 3 vols. (Chicago and London, 1974), 2:468–71; Natana J. Delong-Bas, Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad (Cairo, 2005), pp. 247–55; Hillenbrand, Crusades, pp. 241–43.

  89. Moore, Formation of Persecuting Society, pp. 26–43.

  90. H. G. Richardson, The English Jewry Under the Angevin Kings (London, 1960), p. 8; John H. Mundy, Liberty and Political Power in Toulouse (New York, 1954), p. 325.

  91. Moshe Gil, A History of Palestine, 634–1099, trans. Ethel Broido (Cambridge, UK, 1992), pp. 370–80; F. E. Peters, The Distant Shrine: The Islamic Centuries in Jerusalem (New York, 1993), pp. 73–74, 92–96. The Greeks called the Anastasis that enshrined Christ’s Tomb the Church of the Resurrection; the Crusaders would rename it the Church of the Holy Sepulcher.

  92. Cohn, Pursuit of the Millennium, pp. 76–78, 80, 86–87.

  93. Ibid., pp. 87–88.

  94. Moore, Formation of Persecuting Society, pp. 105–6.

  95. Ibid., pp. 84–85; Richardson, English Jewry, pp. 50–63.

  96. Peter Abelard, Dialogus 51, in A Dialogue of a Philosopher with a Jew and a Christian, trans. P. J. Payer (Toronto, 1979), p. 33.

  97. M. Montgomery Watt, The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe (Edinburgh, 1972), pp. 74–86.

  98.Duby, “Introduction,” in Chivalrous Society, pp. 9–11.

  99. Jonathan and Louise Riley-Smith, The Crusades: Idea and Reality, 1095–1274 (London, 1981), pp. 78–79.

  100. Ibid., pp. 83, 85.

  101. Zoé Oldenbourg, Le Bûcher de Montségur (Paris, 1959), pp. 115–16.

  102. Ibid., p. 89.

  103. G. D. Mansi, Sacrorum Consiliorum nova et amplissima collectio (Paris and Leipzig, 1903), 21:843, in Moore, Formation of Persecuting Society, p. 111.

  104. Norman Cohn, Warrant for Genocide (London, 1967), p. 12.

  105. Peter the Venerable, Summary of the Whole Heresy of the Diabolic Sect of the Saracens, in Norman Daniel, Islam and the West: The Making of an Image (Edinburgh, 1960), p. 124.

  106. Benjamin Kedar, Crusade and Mission: European Approaches to the Muslims (Princeton, NJ, 1984), p. 101.

  107. Moore, Formation of Persecuting Society, pp. 60–67.

  108. Ibid., pp. 102, 110–11.

  109. Carl Erdmann, The Origin of the Idea of Crusade, trans. Marshall W. Baldwin and Walter Goffart (Princeton, NJ, 1977), p. 19.

  110. King Arthur’s Death: The Middle English Stanzaic Morte d’Arthur and the Alliterative Morte d’Arthur, ed. and trans. Larry Benson (Kalamazoo, MI, 1994), line 247.

  111. The Song of Roland, line 2196, all trans. Dorothy L. Sayers (Harmondsworth, UK, 1957).

  112. Ibid., lines 2240, 2361.

  113. Ibid., lines 1881–82.

  114. Keen, Chivalry, pp. 60–63.

  115. The Quest of the Holy Grail, trans. and ed. P. M. Matarasso (Harmondsworth, UK, 1969), pp. 119–20.

  116. Franco Cardini, “The Warrior and Knight,” in Jacques LeGoff, ed., The Medieval World: The History of European Society, trans. Lydia G. Cochrane (London, 1987), p. 95.

  117. Raoul de Hodenc, “Le roman des eles” and Anonymous, “ordene de chevalerie”: Two Early Old French Didactic Poems, ed. Keith Busby (Philadelphia, 1983), p. 175.

  118. Richard W. Kaeuper, Holy Warriors: The Religious Ideology of Chivalry (Philadelphia, 2009), pp. 53–57.

  119. History of William Marshal, trans. and ed. A. T. Holden, S. Gregory, and David Crouch, 2 vols. (London, 2002–6), lines 16,853–63.

  120. Kaeuper, Holy Warriors, pp. 38–49.

  121. Henry of Lancaster, “Book of Holy Remedies,” in E. J. Arnould, ed., Le Livre de Seyntz Medicines: The Unpublished Devotional Treatises of Henry of Lancaster (Oxford, 1940), p. 4.

  122. Kaeuper, Holy Warriors, p. 194.

  123. Ibid., pp. 176–77.

  124. Mastnak, Crusading Peace, pp. 233–39.

  125. Malcolm Barber, The New Knighthood: A History of the Order of the Temple (Cambridge, UK, 1994), pp. 280–313; Norman Cohn, Europe’s Inner Demons; The Demonization of Christians in Medieval Christendom (London, 1975), pp. 79–101.

  126. Brian Tierney, The Crisis of Church and State, 1050–1300 (Toronto, 1988), p. 172; J. H. Shennon, The Origins of the Modern European State 1450–1725 (London, 1974); Quentin Skinner, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought, 2 vols. (Cambridge, UK, 1978), 1:xxiii; A. Fall, Medieval and Renaissance Origins: Historiographical Debates and Demonstrations (London, 1991), p. 120.

  127. Mastnak, Crusading Peace, pp. 244–46.

  128. J. N. Hillgarth, Ramon Lull and Lullism in Fourteenth-Century France (Oxford, 1971), pp. 107–11, 120.

  129.Christopher J. Tyerman, England and the Crusades, 1095–1588 (Chicago, 1988), pp. 324–43; William T. Cavanaugh, Migrations of the Holy: God, State, and the Political Meanings of the Church (Grand Rapids, MI, 2011).

  130. John Barnie, War in Medieval English Society: Social Values in the Hundred Years War, 1337–99 (Ithaca, NY, 1974), pp. 102–3.

  131. Mastnak, Crusading Peace, pp. 248–51; Thomas J. Renna, “Kingship in the Disputatio inter clericum et militem,” Speculum 48 (1973).

  132. Ernst K. Kantorowicz, “Pro Patria Mori in Medieval Political Thought,” American Historical Review 56, no. 3 (1951): 244, 256.

  9 ♦ THE ARRIVAL OF “RELIGION”

  1. Felipe Fernández-Armesto, 1492 : The Year the Four Corners of the Earth Collided (New York, 2009), pp. 9–11, 52.

  2. Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization, 3 vols. (Chicago and London, 1974), 3:14–15, 2:334–60.

  3. John H. Kautsky, The Politics of the Aristocratic Empires, 2nd ed. (New Brunswick, NJ, and London, 1997), p. 146.

  4. Perry Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London, 1974), p. 505.

  5. Fernández-Armesto, 1492 , pp. 2–4.

  6. Timothy H. Parsons, The Rule of Empires: Those Who Built Them, Those Who Endured Them, and Why They Always Fail (Oxford, 2010), p. 117; Peter Jay, Road to Riches, or The Wealth of Man (London, 2000), pp. 147.

  7. Jay, Road to Riches, pp. 151, 152–53.

  8. Henry Kamen, Empire: How Spain Became a World Power, 1492–1763 (New York, 2003), p. 83.

  9. Howard Zinn, A People’s History of the United States: From 1492 to the Present, 2nd ed. (London and New York, 1996), p. 11.

  10. Massimo Livi Bacci, A Concise History of World Population (Oxford, 1997), pp. 56–59.

  11. Parsons, Rule of Empires, pp. 121, 117.

  12. Jay, Road to Riches, p. 150.

  13. Mark Levene, Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State: The Rise of the West and the Coming of Genocide (London and New York, 2005), pp. 15–29.

  14. Cajetan, On Aquinas’ Secunda Scundae, q. 66, art. 8, quoted in Richard Tuck, The Rights of War and Peace: Political Thought and the International Order from Grotius to Kant (Oxford, 1999), p. 70.

  15. Francisco de Vitoria, Political Writings, ed. Anthony Pagden and Jeremy Lawrence (Cambridge, UK, 1991), pp. 225–26.

  16. Thomas More, Utopia, ed. George M. Logan and Robert M. Adams (Cambridge, UK, 1989), pp. 89–90, 58.

  17. Tuck, Rights of War and Peace, p. 15. Max Weber made the same point in 1906; cf. From Max Weber, trans. and ed. H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (London, 1948), pp. 71–72.

  18. The Tacitus passage is quoted in Grotius’s The Rights of War and Peace, in Three Books (London, 1738), 2:2:17, and in Tuck, Rights of War and Peace, pp. 47–48.

  19. Aristotle, Politics 1256.b.22, in The Basic Works of Aristotle, ed. Richard McKeon (New York, 1941).

  20. Henry Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition: An Historical Revision (London, 1997), pp. 45, 68, 137.

  21. Paul Johnson, A History of the Jews (London, 1987), pp. 225–29.

  22. Haim Beinart, Conversos on Trial: The Inquisition in Ciudad Real (Jerusalem, 1981), pp. 3–6.

  23. Norman Rot
h, Conversos, Inquisition, and the Expulsion of Jews from Spain (Madison, WI, 1995), pp. 283–84, 19.

  24. Fernández-Armesto, 1492 , pp. 94–96.

  25. Johnson, History of Jews, p. 229; Yirmiyahu Yovel, Spinoza and Other Heretics, vol. 1: The Marrano of Reason (Princeton, NJ, 1989), pp. 17–18.

  26. Johnson, History of Jews, pp. 225–29.

  27. Kamen, Spanish Inquisition, pp. 57–59; E. William Monter, Frontiers of Heresy: The Spanish Inquisition from the Basque Lands to Sicily (Cambridge, UK, 1990), p. 53.

  28. Kamen, Spanish Inquisition, p. 69.

  29. Robin Briggs, “Embattled Faiths: Religion and Natural Philosophy,” in Euan Cameron, ed., Early Modern Europe: An Oxford History (Oxford, 1999), pp. 197–205.

  30. Jay, Road to Riches, pp. 160–63.

  31. Henri Pirenne, Medieval Cities: Their Origins and the Revival of Trade (Princeton, NJ, 1946), pp. 168–212; Bert F. Hoselitz, Sociological Aspects of Economic Growth (New York, 1960), pp. 163–72.

  32. Norman Cohn, Pursuit of the Millennium: Revolutionary Millenarians and Mystical Anarchists of the Middle Ages (London, 1984 ed.), pp. 107–16.

  33. Euan Cameron, “The Power of the Word: Renaissance and Reformation,” in Cameron, Early Modern Europe, pp. 87–90.

  34. Richard Marius, Martin Luther: The Christian Between God and Death (Cambridge, MA, and London, 1999), pp. 73–74, 214–15, 486–87.

  35. Joshua Mitchell, Not by Reason Alone: History and Identity in Early Modern Political Thought (Chicago, 1993), pp. 23–30.

  36. Martin Luther, “Temporal Authority: To What Extent It Should Be Obeyed,” trans. J. J. Schindel, rev. Walther I. Brandt, in J. M. Porter, ed., Luther: Selected Political Writings (hereafter SPW) (Eugene, OR, 2003), pp. 54, 55, 56.

  37. Martin Luther, “Whether Soldiers, Too, Can Be Saved,” trans. Charles M. Jacobs, rev. Robert C. Schultz, in SPW, p. 108.

  38. J. W. Allen, A History of Political Thought in the Sixteenth Century (London, 1928), p. 16; Sheldon S. Wolin, Politics and Vision: Continuity and Innovation in Western Political Thought (Boston, 1960), p. 164.

  39. Cohn, Pursuit of Millennium, pp. 245–50.

  40. Martin Luther, “Admonition to Peace: A Reply to the Twelve Articles of the Peasants in Swabia” (1525), trans. J. J. Schindel, rev. Walther I. Brandt, in SPW, pp. 72, 78, 82.