The Classical World

by Robin Lane Fox

  VIHh Congress of the International Federation of the Societies of Classical Studies (1984), 397. On Roman motivation, John Rich, 'Fear, Greed and Glory', in J. Rich and G. Shipley (eds.), War and Society in the Roman World (1993), 38-68, A Ziolkowski, 'Urbs Direpta, or How the Romans Sacked Cities', ibid. (1993), 69-91. On third-century Greece, Graham Shipley, The Greek World after Alexander, 323-30 bc (1999), 108-152; F. W. Walbank, 'An Experiment In Greek Union', in Proceedings of the Classical Association (1970), 13-27 and his 'The Causes of Greek Decline', in Journal of Hellenic Studies (1944), 10-20; G. E. M. de Sainte Croix, The Class Struggle in the Ancient Greek World (1981), 344-50 and 518-37, with John Briscoe, in Past and Present (1967), 1-20 and J. J. Walsh, in Classical Quarterly (2000), 300-3. On the 'destruction of democracy', P. J. Rhodes and D. M. Lewis, The Decrees of the Greek States (1997), 542-50.

  CHAPTER 31. LUXURY AND LICENCE

  Erich S. Gruen, Culture and National Identity in Republican Rome (1992) is an excellent survey of Greek-Roman interrelations; Jean-Louis Ferrary, Philhellenisme et imperialisme (1988) is extremely important for the rela­tions of power; Matthew Leigh, Comedy and the Rise of Rome (2004), on the dramas; E. Baltrusch, Regimen Morum (1989) is full of detail; A. G. Clemente, in A. Giardina and A. Schiavone (eds.), Societa romana e produzione schiavistica, volume I (1981), 1-12, is the best short survey of sumptuary law; E. Gabba, Del buon uso della richezza (1988) is longer. On Cato, A. E. Astin, Cato the Censor (1978) is a narrative, with all the evidence; Jonathan C. Edmondson, in Bettina Bergmann and Christine Kondoleon, The Art of Ancient Spectacle (1999), 77-96, is excellent on the shows in the East and at Rome in the 160s bc. Erich S. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism (2002), on culture-clashes in Judaea. On Polybius, P. S. Derow, in T. James Luce, Ancient Writers: Greece and Rome, volume I (1982), 525-40, is a very penetrating introduction. F. W. Walbank, Polybius (1972) is essential, with the subsequent survey to 2000 and some fascinating essays in his Polybius, Rome and the Hellenistic World (2002). His three-volume Commentary on Polybius (1957-79) is the outstanding such work by a living scholar on Greek history.

  CHAPTER 32. TURBULENCE AT HOME AND ABROAD

  Much is compressed, or omitted, in this chapter, but the period is excellently served in the revised Cambridge Ancient History, volume IX (1994), especi­ally chapters 2-6, pages 498-563, on public and private law (a particularly compressed element in my 'story') and chapter 15 (administration of the Empire). The sources are collected invaluably by A. H. J. Greenidge and A. M. Clay, Sources of Roman History, 133-70 bc (1986, 2nd edn.). On individual careers, A. E. Astin, Scipio Aemilianus (1967); David Stockton, The Gracchi (1979); T. Carney, A Biography ofC. Marius (1970, 2nd edn.); E. Badian, Lucius Sulla: The Deadly Reformer, Todd Memorial Lecture (1970); Arthur Keaveney, Sulla: The Last Republican (1982) and J. P. V. D. Balsdon, 'Sulla Felix', in Journal of Roman Studies (1951), 1-10. On particu­lar aspects, A. N. Sherwin-White, 'The Political Ideas of C. Gracchus', in Journal of Roman Studies (1982), 18-31 and P. A. Brunt, The Fall of the Roman Republic (1988), chapters 2-4 are exceptionally important; also, J. S. Richardson, in Journal of Roman Studies (1987), 1-12, on extortion; A. W. Lintott, Judicial Reform and Land Reform in the Roman Republic (1992), 10-33, and 44_5°> E- Gabba, Republican Rome, the Army and the Allies (1976), chapters 1 and 2. Robert MorsteinKallet-Marx, Hegemony to Empire (1995) is excellent on Rome's 'empire' to 62 bc. M. H. Crawford (ed.), Roman Statutes I (1996), numbers 1, 2, 12 and 14, gives excellent commen­taries on four major documents.

  CHAPTER 33. POMPEY'S TRIUMPHS

  Pat Southern, Pompey the Great (2002) is a lively popular introduction; Robin Seager, Pompey the Great (2003, revised edn.) is a scholarly study of political factions and detail. F. G. B. Millar, The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic (1998), chapters 2-4, takes a clear and vigorous line, though the main 'democratic' emphasis is not followed in my chapter, on which see M. Jehne (ed.), 'Demokratie in Rom?', in Historia Einzelschrift, 96 (1995), for full critiques. For questions linked to aristocratic competition, see the exchanges of view by Nathan Rosenstein, Callie Williamson, John North and W. V. Harris, in Classical Philology (1990), 255-98. For Rome, the East and Mithridates, A. N. Sherwin-White, Roman Foreign Policy in the East (1984), 149-270. On Pompey and public shows, Richard C. Beacham, Spectacle Entertainments of Early Imperial Rome (1999), 49-74.

  CHAPTER 34. THE WORLD OF CICERO

  J. P. V. D. Balsdon, 'Cicero the Man', in T. A. Dorey (ed.), Cicero (1965), 171-214, remains an outstanding study; Elizabeth Rawson, Cicero: A Por­trait (1983, 2nd edn.) is a many-sided study, while David Stockton, Cicero: A Political Biography (1971) is good on its chosen ground. L. R. Taylor, Party Politics in the Age of Caesar (1968) is excellent, especially chapter III ('Delivering the Vote') and chapter V (The Criminal Courts and the Rise of a New Man'). D. R. Shackleton Bailey (ed.), Cicero's Letters to Atticus, volume I (1965), 3-58, is a superb study of Atticus and Cicero; Miriam T. Griffin, 'Philosophical Badinage in Cicero's Letters To His Friends', in J. G. F. Powell (ed.), Cicero the Philosopher: Twelve Papers (1995), 325-46, catches a wider world. The editions of D. R. Shackleton Bailey, including the recent Loeb Library texts and translations of Cicero's Letters, are acknowledged masterpieces. S. Treggiari, Roman Social Histon' (2002), 49-73, is an exemp­lary study of how they can be used for nonpolitical topics; Susan Treggiari, Roman Marriage (1991), 127-38, 414-27 and chapter 13 ('Divorce') guides us through marriage and Cicero; Susan Treggiari, Roman Freedmen during the Late Republic (1969), 252-64, on Cicero's freedmen, including Tiro; S. Weinstock, in Journal of Roman Studies (1961), 209-10, underlies my view of Cicero and 'religion'.

  CHAPTER 35. THE RISE OF JULIUS CAESAR

  J. P. V. D. Balsdon, Julius Caesar and Rome (1967) is an excellent brief introduction; Matthias Gelzer, Caesar (1968) is the basic fully documented account; Christian Meier, Caesar (1995, English translation) is more abstract, but is notably reviewed by E. Badian in Gnomon (1990), 22-39, whose own brief survey in the Oxford Classical Dictionary (1996, 3rd edn.), 780-2, is important. Kathryn Welch, Anton Powell and Jonathan Barlow (eds.), Julius Caesar as Artful Reporter (1998) has much of value on Caesar's style and 'spin'. On Cato, L. R. Taylor, Party Politics in the Age of Caesar (1968), 119-39. On land allotment, P. A. Brunt, The Fall of the Roman Republic (1988), 240-88, is a classic; on debt and financing, M. W. Frederiksen, 'Caesar, Cicero and the Problem of Debt', in Journal of Roman Studies (1966), 128-41, is another. J. Sabben Clare, Caesar and Roman Politics, 60-50 bc (1971), 1-49, translates much of the main evidence very helpfully. P. A. Brunt, Italian Manpower (1987, 2nd edn.), 312-19, discusses Caesar's agrarian laws. On public speaking, Andrew J. E. Bell, 'Cicero and the Spec­tacle of Power', in Journal of Roman Studies (1997), 1-22, and the very important study by R. Morstein-Marx, Mass Oratory and Political Power in the Late Roman Republic (2004).

  CHAPTER 36. THE SPECTRE OF CIVIL WAR

  T. P. Wiseman, 'Caesar, Pompey and Rome, 59-50 bc,' in Cambridge Ancient History, volume IX (1994), 368-423, gives an intelligible narrative; P. A. Brunt, The Pall of the Roman Republic (1988), chapter 1 is masterly and chapter 6 ('Libertas in the Republic') is fundamental at this point; David Stockton, 'Cicero and the Ager Campanus', in Transactions of the American Philological Society (1962), 471-89, is an outstanding study of 57-56 bc and much more besides; A. W. Lintott, 'P. Clodius Pulcher - Felix Catilina', in Greece and Rome (1967), 157-69, and 'Cicero and Milo', in Journal of Roman Studies (1974), 62-78, help to explain two leading 'populists', together with A. W. Lintott, Violence in Republican Rome (1999, 2nd edn.), especially pages 67-88. On living conditions, P. A. Brunt, 'The Roman Mob', in M. I. Finley (ed.), Studies in Ancient Society (1974), 74-102, is fundamental, with A. Scobie, in Klio (1986), 399-443. Emily A. Hemelrijk, Matrona Docta (1999) is good on educated women, in the late Republic and in the Empire. J. F. Drinkwater, Roman Gaul (1983), 5-20, briefly summar­izes Caesar's Gallic years; Elizabeth Rawson, Roman Culture and Society (1991), 416-26, is very interesting on Crassus senior and junio
r; G. R. Stanton, in Historia (2003), 67-94, studies 'why did Caesar cross the Rubicon?'

  CHAPTER 37. THE FATAL DICTATOR

  S. Weinstock, Divus Julius (1971), 133-345, is the outstanding study still, in my judgement, with I. Gradel, Emperor Worship and Roman Religion (2002), 54-72. Elizabeth Rawson, Roman Culture and Society (1991), 169-88 on the 'kingship', and pages 488-507, especially, on Cassius, with David Sedley, in Journal of Roman Studies (1997), 41-53; Stephen G. Chrissanthos, in Journal of Roman Studies (2001), 63-71, on money; M. W. Frederiksen, in Journal of Roman Studies (1966), 128-41 on debt, with G. E. M. de Sainte Croix, The Class Struggle in the Ancient Greek World (1981), 166 and notes 60-63. P- A. Brunt, in Journal of Roman Studies (1986), 12-32, on Cicero's dilemma; R. B. Ulrich, in American Journal of Archaeology (1993), 49-80, on the new Forum; C. Habicht, Cicero the Politician (1990), chapter 6, on Cicero; Z. Yavetz, Caesar and His Public Image (1983), iot-6, on Caesar's legislation; Tenney Frank, An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome, volume I

  (1933), 316-18, on the colonies, and pages 333-42 on funding, is still excellent. J. P. V. D. Balsdon, in Historia (1958), 80-94, a classic on the Ides and motives, though not the last wotd.

  CHAPTER 38. LIBERATION BETRAYED

  R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1939; revised edn., 1951) is a classic, but I am one of those who find it a very difficult read. Henriette van der Blom, in Classica et Mediaevalia (2003), 287-320, is now an excellent and much clearer account of Cicero in 44-43 bc; compare Elizabeth Rawson, Cicero (1975), 260-98. The new emphasis of importance is on Sextus Pompeius, in Anton Powell and Kathryn Welch (eds.), Sextus Pompeius (2002); on the Liberators, Elizabeth Rawson, Roman Culture and Society (1991), 488-507; Lawrence Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army (1984), 112-21, 199-204; S. Weinstock, Divus Julius (1971), 346-47 is masterly here too. T. N. Mitchell, Cicero the Senior Statesman (1991), chapter 7, is well documented; R. Syme, Sallust (1964) is an important study.

  CHAPTER 39. ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA

  R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1939; revised edn., 1951), chapters XII to XXI, a classic, but reductionist; Pat Southern, Mark Antony (1998) is a simple start on Antony; Ellen Rice, Cleopatra (1999), likewise. Major changes since Syme's book include awareness of the 'fourth man', in Anton Powell and Kathryn Welch (eds.), Sextus Pompeius (2002) and much more work on monuments and publicity. Paul Zanker, The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus (1988), 5-78, a fine study, with the excellent article of K. Scott, in Memoirs of the American Academy at Rome (1933), 7-49; the good survey of 36-28 bc by Fergus Millar, in La Revolution romaine apres Ronald Syme, Enttetiens Fondation Hardt XLVI (1999), 1-38, with the others in the volume, especially John Scheid, pages 39-72, on religion. Syme's contribution is reconsidered by H. Galsterer and Z. Yavetz, in Kurt A Raaflaub and Mark Toher (eds.), Between Republic and Empire (1990), 1-41. The marriage of Antony and Cleopatra and Cleopatra's death raise questions too, beyond Syme's book: John Whitehorne, Cleopatras (3 994), especially pages 186-96, and Duane W. Roller, The World ofjuba II and Kleopatra Selene (2003), an excellent study. Jacob Isager, Foundation and Destruction of Nicopolis and Northeastern Greece (2001), for one aftermath; Joyce Reynolds, Aphrodisias and Rome (1982) for the important documents.

  CHAPTER 40. THE MAKING OF THE EMPEROR

  W. K. Lacey, Augustus and the Principate: The Evolution of the System (1996) is a very useful collection of studies; P. A. Brunt, in La rivoluzione romana, Biblioteca de Labeo, 6 (1982), 236-44 is best on 27 bc; D. Stockton, in Historia (1965), 18-40, adopts 23 bc for the trial which I have put now in 22 bc; P. A. Brunt and J. M. Moore, Res Gestae Divi Augusti (1967) with translation and excellent commentary, especially on 19 bc; A. H. M. Jones, Studies in Roman Government and Law (1960), 1-17 is a lucid basis for much since written in dialogue with it; M. T. Griffin, in Loveday Alexander (ed.), Images of Empire (1991), 19-46, questions the overtones of the 'tribun-ician' side to 23 bc. A. Wallace-Hadrill, in journal of Roman Studies (1982), 32-48, on the emperor's many-sided image; P. A. Brunt, in Classical Quar­terly (1984), 423-44, on the Senate's continuing functions, if not power.

  CHAPTER 41. MORALS AND SOCIETY

  M. Beard, J. North and S. R. F. Price, Religions of Rome, volume I (1998), 114-210, is an excellent, questioning survey, with J. Liebeschuetz, Continuity and Change in Roman Religion (1979), chapter 2; P. A. Brunt, Italian Man­power (1971), 558-66, is important; Catherine Edwards, The Politics of Immorality in Ancient Rome (1983) gives the context very well; S. Treggiari, Roman Marriage (1991) is a classic, especially pages 60-80,277-98 and 450-61. J. A. Crook, Law and Life of Rome (1967), 99-118, especially on the rather varied implications of the changes in 'manus' marriage; Beryl Rawson (ed.), The Family in Ancient Rome (1986) is still a fine collection throughout, includ­ing J. A. Crook on the (later) wariness about women making loans (pages 83-92); Beryl Rawson, Marriages, Divorce and Children in Ancient Rome (1991) is also excellent, especially chapters 1-5; Jane F. Gardner, Women in Roman Law and Society (199 5,2nd edn.) is a fundamental guide; Susan Dixon, Child­hood, Class and Kin (2001) is relevant too. Jasper Griffin, in Journal of Roman Studies (1976), 87, and R. G. M. Nisbet, ibid. (1987), 184-90, debate the poets and their context; Peter Green, Classical Bearings (1989), 210-22 is excellent on Ovid's exile. A. M. Duff, Freedmen in the Early Roman Empire (1928), 12-35 and 72-88 and K. R. Bradley, Slaves and Masters in the Roman Empire (1984) untangle the laws on slaves very well.

  CHAPTER 42. SPECTATOR SPORTS

  D. S. Potter and D. J. Mattingly (eds.), Life, Death and Entertainment in the Roman Empire (199 8) is an excellent collection to which I owe much. Richard

  C. Beacham, Spectacle Entertainments of Early Imperial Rome (1999) is

  excellent, with good bibliographies. K. M. Coleman, in journal of Roman

  Studies (1990), 44-73, and (1993), 48-74, are excellent studies; R. E. Fan-

  tham, in Classical World (1989), 153-63, on mimes; on pantomime, E. J.

  Jory, in Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies (1981), 147-61, and in

  W. J. Slater (ed.), Roman Theatre and Society (1996), 1-28, a valuable

  collection throughout; C. P. Jones, in W. J. Slater (ed.), Dining in a Classical

  Context (1991), 185-98, on theatre over dinner; Garrett G. Fagan, Bathing

  in Public in the Roman World (1999), with translated texts; J. H. Humphrey,

  Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing (1986) is invaluable; Eckart

  Kohne and Cornelia Ewigleben, Gladiators and Caesars (2000) is very vivid;

  Adriano La Regina (ed.), Sangue e arena (2001) is outstandingly good; David

  Potter, in Martin M. Winkler (ed.), Gladiator: Film and History (2004) gives

  an excellent account of gladiators' careers; Donald G. Kyle, Spectacles of

  Death in the Roman Amphitheatre (1998), full of explanatory theories too;

  D. C. Bomgardner, The Story of the Roman Amphitheater (2000), a social

  history; Keith Hopkins, Death and Renewal (1983), chapter 1; Bettina Berg-

  mann and Christine Kondoleon (eds.), The Art of Ancient Spectacle (1999),

  an excellent collection; B. M. Levick, in Journal of Roman Studies (1983),

  97-115, is the classic study of official reactions, and Elizabeth Rawson,

  Roman Culture and Society (1991), 508-45 of theatre-regulations and the

  Lex Julia; Kathleen M. Coleman, in Kathleen Lomas and Tim Cornell (eds.),

  Bread and Circuses (2002), 61-88, on the location of Augustan shows.

  CHAPTER 43. THE ROMAN ARMY

  J. J. Wilkins (ed.), Documenting the Roman Army: Essays in Honour of Margaret Roxan (2003, Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies) is an excellent collection of essays, especially W. Eck on the emperor's role in issuing 'diplomas'; L. R. Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army (1984), 132-216, is excellent on the change from Civil War to the age of Augustus; J. B. Campbell, The Emperor and the Roman Army, 31 bc-AD 233 (1984), 17-242 and 300-316, is basic on the emperor's role and the
giving of privileges; G. R. Watson, The Roman Soldier (1969) is lively and P. Connolly, The Roman Army (1975) is by an author who is interested in reconstructing the realities; G. Webster, The Roman Imperial Army (1985, 3rd edn.); Brian

  Campbell, The Roman Army, 31 bc-ad 337 (1994) is a very good source­book; Harry Sidebottom, Ancient Warfare: A Very Short Introduction (2004) is outstandingly good, with a very good bibliography. I incline to the studies by M. P. Speidel, Riding for Caesar (1994) and Ann Hyland, Equus: The Horse in the Roman World (1990), especially on saddles and harness. Jona­than Roth, The Logistics of the Roman Army (T999) is of wide relevance; T. J. Cornell, in J. Rich and G. Shipley (eds.), War and Society in the Roman World (1993), 139-70, surveys Roman military expansion in the early imperial age; J. N. Adams, in Journal of Roman Studies (1994), 87-112 and ibid. (1999), 109-34, two fascinating studies of soldiers' Latin in north Africa.

  CHAPTER 44. THE NEW AGE

  M. Beard, J. North and S. R. F. Price (eds.), Religions of Rome, volume I (1998), 182-210, on rites and temples; D. C. Feeney, Literature and Religion at Rome (1998), 28-38; A. D. Nock, Essays on Religion and the Ancient World, volume I (1972), 16-25 ancl 34^-56. Greg Rowe, Princes and Politi­cal Culture (2003), especially pages 102-24 on Pisa and elsewhere; Beth Severy, Augustus and the Family at the Birth of the Roman Empire (2003) is excellent; N. Purcell, in Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society (1986), 78-105, and M. Boudreau Flory, in Historia (1984), 309-330, are important on Livia; N. Horsfall, The Culture of the Roman Plebs (2003); P. Zanker, The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus (1988), 79-297, extremely readable; Kurt A. Raaflaub and Mark Toher (eds.), Between Republic and Empire (1990), especially T. J. Luce, pages 123-38, B. A. Kellner, pages 276-307, and K. Raaflaub, pages 428-54; F. G. B. Millar and E. Segal (eds.), Caesar Augustus: Seven Aspects (1984), especially Millar, pages 37-60, and W. Eck, pages 129-68, in an excellent collection; A. H. M. Jones, Criminal Courts of the Roman Republic and Principate (1972); F. G. B. Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World (1977), 363-550, on embassies and justice; A. W. Lintott, Imperium Romanum (1993), 115-20.