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Frankel, Ernst, 52
Freedom House, 8, 136, 202, 208, 358–59, 360–61, 362, 367
Frente da libertação de Moçambique (FRELIMO), 108, 109, 129, 170–72
Frente nacional para a libertaçâ de Angola (FLNA), 234
Front de libération nationale (FLN), 13, 27, 64, 107, 109, 202–3
Front Islamique de salut (FIS), 27, 202
Gabon: development ranking for, 360–61; foreign aid and, 161; international system and, 136; military coups and, 144; monarchy’s disappearance and, 127–28; multiple party system and, 207; national conference mechanism blocked and, 199; pathways to independence and, 366; patrimonialism and, 28, 29, 176; security imperative and, 129, 191, 348, 349; territoriality resistance and, 91, 393n10
Gambia: democratization and, 195; development ranking for, 360–61, 361; liberal market model and, 55, 124; military intervention and rule in, 145–46, 150, 151, 404n42; territorial integrity and, 302
Garang, John, 269–74, 306
Gatta, Gali Ngothe, 166
Gbagbo, Laurent, 221, 281, 288, 336, 365, 373–74
gender, 326–27, 328. See also women
genocidal violence (ethnic violence), 205–6, 220, 245, 248, 275, 288, 319–20, 393n11
Germany, 90–91, 106, 307
Ghana (formerly Gold Coast): armed liberation struggles for decolonization and, 108; autocratic rule and, 122–23; cocoa and, 62, 167–69, 403n29; constitutionalism and, 16; cultural pluralism and, 219; decolonization and, 3, 12; democratization and, 29, 145, 151, 196, 221–22, 336, 381n88; development and, 218, 335, 358, 360–61; development projects in, 133; economic prosperity during colonial period and, 13; ethnicity and, 322–23, 426n73; foreign aid and, 170; hegemony imperative and, 347; institutional frames and, 117; international system and, 136; liberalization and, 62; liberation struggles during decolonization and, 229; military intervention and rule in, 19, 144, 145–46, 151, 152; pan-Africanism and, 298, 422n11; pathways to independence and, 99; regime structure and, 77; revenue imperative and, 156; SAPs and, 352; single party system and, 16, 17, 131, 209; social services and, 133; state crisis and, 23, 406n25; state decline and, 25, 83; state failure and, 167–70; state in social imaginary and, 314; state rehabilitation and, 193; subaltern military coups and, 145–46; territorial integrity and, 302; territoriality and, 90–91, 393n8; territorial nationalism and, 295; timetables for decolonization and, 96. See also specific leaders
Giddens, Anthony, 40, 51
global environment post–cold war: democratization and, 197, 205, 221; internal wars and, 227–28, 247, 252–53, 284–85, 349; militias and, 252–53, 284–87
Gold Coast (now Ghana). See Ghana (formerly Gold Coast)
governments and governance: overview of, 335–36, 429n5; democratization and, 198; development and, 346; federalism and, 104, 116–17, 204, 241–42, 307, 331, 420n86; institutional frames and, 33, 115–20, 128, 366–69, 381n88, 389n95, 400n84, 400nn87–88, 432n64; property rights and, 48; state’s attributes and, 35–36; state theory and, 33–35, 35; state weakness in context of violence by, 75; violence and disorder by, 75. See also parliamentarianism; state; and specific countries and states
Gowon, Yakubu, 20, 151, 353
Gramsci, Antonio, 44–45, 55
Great Britain: cold war context for decolonization and, 118; colonial state and, 87–88, 89, 392n5; commonwealth membership and, 95, 394n19; decolonization and, 11, 87–88, 103–4, 105, 118, 392n5; ethnicity in context of military rule and, 149; institutional frames and, 115–16, 128; legal status in context of decolonization and, 105; management capacity of state and, 103–4, 105; military rule recognition by, 147–48; nationalism and, 307; “official mind” in context of decolonization and, 392n5; parliamentarianism and, 33, 307; pathways to independence and, 99; power transfer comparisons and, 96–97, 97–98; representative institutions and, 93; security imperative and, 129, 155; sovereignty and, 11, 95, 394n19; territoriality and, 92; universal suffrage and, 11, 93. See also specific states
Group of 77, 161, 190, 351
Guinea: armed liberation struggles for decolonization and, 108; autocratic rule and, 122–23; autonomy imperative and, 154, 352; decolonization and, 11, 12; development ranking for, 358, 360–61; internal wars and, 253, 258–59; international sanctions and, 298; international system and, 136; military coups and, 221; narcotics trafficking and, 66; pathways to independence and, 99; single party system and, 137; term limits and, 365; territorial nationalism and, 295; timetables for decolonization and, 96
Guinea-Bissau: armed liberation struggles for decolonization and, 102–3, 107–9, 159, 163; constitutionalism and, 404n6; decolonization and, 23; decolonization as blocked and, 102–3; development ranking for, 360–61; ethnicity and, 246; hegemony imperative and, 347; integral state and, 158–59, 404n6; internal wars and, 246; liberation struggles during decolonization and, 229–30; military rule and, 152; narcotics trafficking and, 66, 159; pathways to independence and, 366; single party system and, 152; state failure and, 158–59, 210, 404n6
Habermas, Jürgen, 47
Habyarimana, Juvenal, 151, 205–6, 353
Hailey, W. M., 49, 111
Hall, Margaret, 170
Hammarskjöld, Dag, 12, 18
Harbeson, John W., 78
Hardin, Russell, 318
Hargreaves, John, 98
Hassan II (king of Morocco), 79–80, 102, 124–25
Hawiye, 262, 265
health services, 43, 161, 241
hegemony imperative, 44–45, 51, 153, 155, 189, 347–48
Henry, Clement Moore, 79, 348, 385n38, 414n69
Herbst, Jeffrey, 72, 169–70, 345, 361, 428n95
HIV/AIDS, 151, 345, 369
Hobbes, Thomas, 38, 266, 293
Hodgkin, Thomas, 15, 111, 136
Houphouët-Boigny, Félix: leadership and, 78–79, 250–51, 348, 364–65; nationalism, 11–12; pathways to independence and, 99, 395n32; patrimonialism and, 176; ruler’s imperative and, 79–80; state crisis avoidance and, 164; territoriality law and, 91
human rights abuses: children and, 260, 279, 286–87; ethnicity and, 272–73, 426n76; internal wars and, 193, 253–54, 259–60, 266, 272–73, 280, 288; militias and, 253–54, 254–56, 271–72; single party system and, 136; sovereignty and, 39, 384n21; warlords and, 193, 253–54, 259–60
Huntington, Samuel P., 21, 26, 136–37, 194, 402n15
Hutchinson, Sharon, 272
Hutu, 92, 205–6, 220, 276–77, 316, 320, 323, 393n11
hybrid state, 28–29, 65, 70–71, 75, 194–95, 209–10, 218, 221
Hyden, Goran, 9, 15, 73, 198, 334–35, 388n93
iconography, 42, 131, 311
identity: Arab, 113, 240–41, 270, 275, 296–97, 327–28, 399n76, 427n87; black, 112, 113, 147, 183, 241, 275, 292, 297; citizenship and, 37, 299, 422n13; ethnonationalism and, 303, 309, 313, 325, 331, 332, 425n45; Islamism and, 241, 297; liberation movement and, 310; militias and, 306; nation-state and, 41; others/the other and, 299, 320; racial, 298–99; religious ideology and, 219, 309; sports and, 311; territorial
integrity and, 300–302; as triple helix, 31, 291–93, 332–33, 428n98. See also Africanism; ethnicity; territorial nationalism
Igbo, 19, 20, 145, 155
Iliffe, John, 74
independence for states: Africa as concept and, 4–8, 376n13; baseline for, 3–4, 6, 375n1, 376n12; independence elections and, 12, 115, 126, 128, 133, 143; six phases of periodization and, 8–10, 10; three-cycle periodization and, 9–10, 10, 28; without military intervention, 145, 145n27. See also sovereignty; state
indigeneity, 37, 220, 284, 331–32
indigenization, 21–22, 160, 190, 353–54
informal economy, 73, 168, 189, 284
Inga dam project, 57–58, 81, 180–82, 186
Inga-Katanga power line, 20, 22–23, 57–58, 180–82, 186, 408n57
institutional frames, 33, 115–20, 128, 366–69, 381n88, 389n95, 400n84, 400nn87–88, 432n64. See also governments and governance
ins
trumentalism, 316–18, 425n57
integral state (state expansion): overview of, 9, 10, 19–23, 379n63; Afromarxism and, 22, 379n63; Arusha Declaration in 1967 and, 56; colonial legacy and, 338–39; constitutionalism and, 59; democratization and, 210, 412n39; dependency theory and, 22; development and, 161–62; diaspora and, 339; foreign aid and, 161, 183–84; indigenization measures and, 21–22; liberal market model and, 61–62; Marxism-Leninism and, 22, 60–61; military intervention and, 21; militias and, 20–21; nationalizations and, 21–22; parastatalization and, 22; property rights and, 65, 177; socialism and, 22, 24–25, 56, 60–61, 64, 160; state and, 55–62, 387n77; state crisis and, 159–63; state failure and, 158–59, 404n6; welfare mission and, 61
Inter-African Governmental Agency for Development (IGAD), 261, 263
interahamwe (Rwandan Hutu youth militia), 206, 277
internal wars (civil wars): overview of, 3–4, 30–31, 227–29, 244–49, 249, 283–90; Africanism and, 240–41, 275; Arab identity and, 240–41, 270, 275; black identity and, 241, 275; border disputes and, 232–34, 246, 262–63, 283, 288; civil society and, 266, 289; cold war and, 23, 245–46; democratization and, 195; development and, 345–46, 350–51; diaspora and, 240, 252, 260, 263–65, 280; diversity in contemporary, 283; economics and, 255, 271–73, 286; education system and, 244, 255, 262; ethnicity and, 246–47, 248, 261–63, 265, 268, 270, 272–73, 278–80; federalism and, 241–42; foreign aid and, 245–46; foreign investments, 185; genocidal violence and, 245, 248, 275, 288; global environment post–cold war and, 227–28, 247, 252–53, 284–85, 349; human rights abuses and, 193, 253–54, 259–60, 266, 272–73, 280, 288; internal dynamics effect on character of, 287; international peacekeeping and, 231–32, 235–36, 251–52, 263–65, 273, 275, 277–78, 281, 287–88, 298, 349, 431n38; international system acceptance and, 239, 246, 267–68, 281; interpenetrated conflicts and, 249–61, 288–89, 417n32; Islamism and, 247–48, 263–65, 269, 281, 287; liberation struggles postindependence and, 228–29, 231, 243–44; Liberia and Sierra Leone, 249, 249; looted commodities and, 286; management capacity of state and, 283, 421n93; Marxism-Leninism and, 172; military intervention and rule in, 19, 149–50; military weapons black market and, 30, 230, 243, 278, 284–85; multiple military involvements and, 276–78, 281–82; national conference mechanism and, 250; natural resources and, 30, 245, 253, 258, 269, 277, 283, 286, 420n79; oil and, 235, 269, 271–73, 281–82, 289; pan-Africanism and, 289, 298; pathways to independence and, 28, 30; piracy and, 265–68; population displacement and, 278–80; reconciliation and, 260, 289; security imperative and, 349, 431n38; security state and, 46; separatism and, 238–43, 244–45, 248, 268, 270, 273–75, 281–82, 284–85, 289, 301, 307, 359; state, 283; state decline and, 262, 290; state failure and, 210, 229, 234–38; structural stalemates and, 286–87; territoriality and, 246; terrorism and, 263, 265, 267, 272, 288; warlords and, 30, 166–67, 237–38, 244, 251, 253–54, 259, 261, 265–68, 272, 286; women as victims of, 272–73. See also armed liberation struggles; internal wars (civil wars); militias; and specific states
International Criminal Court (ICC), 39, 275, 280
International Monetary Fund (IMF): development and, 335, 359; integral state failure and, 20, 62; liberalization and, 62; SAPs and, 177–79; state failure and, 170
international peacekeeping, and internal wars, 231–32, 235–36, 251–52, 263–65, 273, 275, 277–78, 281, 287–88. See also specific countries, states and organizations
international system: constitutionalism and, 65, 372; decolonization settlement breakdown and, 134–37; internal wars and, 239, 246, 267–68, 281; single party system and, 136, 139; state’s attributes, 42
international terrorism. See terrorism
interpenetrated conflicts, 249–61, 255–59, 288–89, 417n32
interstate conflicts, 72, 283, 290, 298, 328. See also border disputes
Isaaq, 262, 267
Islamic Courts Union (ICU), 263–64
Islamic law (shari’a), 40–41, 120, 219, 264, 269, 270, 419n67
Islamism: Arab identity and, 327; autocratic rule and, 194, 410n3; identity and, 241, 297; internal wars and, 247–48, 263–65, 269, 281, 287; legitimation imperative and, 191; liberal market model and, 34; militias and, 263–65, 269–70; Muslim Brotherhood and, 113, 142, 247, 264, 270, 400n88; religion as identity system and, 219; religious ideology and, 309; state as idea and, 43; women’s rights and, 419n67
Italy: colonial states and, 6, 262, 395n25, 395n28; decolonization settlement and, 294, 395n25; foreign aid and, 181; independence for states and, 126; liberation struggles during decolonization and, 232–33; nationalism and, 307, 310; power transfer comparisons and, 97, 362, 395n28; territoriality and, 91, 92
Ivory Coast: democratization as unsuccessful and, 210, 220, 373–74; development ranking for, 358, 360–61; electoral conflict management and, 221; indigeneity and, 284, 331; internal wars and, 30, 210, 281, 381n90; international peacekeeping and, 281, 289; leadership and, 364–65; pathways to independence and, 99, 366, 395n32; patrimonialism and, 71, 176; security imperative and, 129, 191, 348, 349; separatism and, 248; single party system and, 70, 137, 138, 139; state crisis avoidance and, 163–64; state expansion failure and, 58; territoriality resistance and, 91
Jackson, Robert, 23–24, 25, 72, 80, 303
Jammeh, Yahya, 151, 195, 404n42
Jawara, Dawda, 222
Johnson, Samuel, 315
Johnson-Sirleaf, Ellen, 252, 254, 259, 260, 359
Joseph, Richard, 28, 115
Jowitt, Kenneth, 320
Kabila, Laurent, 211, 276–78, 277, 375n2, 420n81
Kabwe, Buana, 32
Kagame, Paul, 53, 220, 412n31
Kago Lele, Jacques, 325
Kagwa, Apolo, 315, 325
Kalanda, Mabika, 112
Kamajors, 255–58, 261
Kandeh, Jimmy D., 145–46, 250, 254, 284
Kasfir, Nelson, 138
Kaunda, Kenneth, 12, 79, 200–201
Keita, Modibo, 11, 67
Kenya: armed liberation struggles for decolonization and, 107; cultural pluralism and, 219; decolonization and, 12; development ranking for, 358, 359, 360–61; education system and, 69, 164; electoral conflict management and, 212–13, 214–16, 220, 221, 335–36, 413n47; ethnicity in context of military rule and, 149; ethnonationalism and, 320, 321; governance and, 335–36, 429n5; indigeneity and, 331; individual versus group behavior and, 330; institutional frames and, 116, 117; legal status in context of decolonization and, 106; liberation struggles during decolonization and, 231–32; Mau Mau and, 12, 111, 231; multiple party system and, 202; nationalism and, 111; parastatalization and, 63; patrimonialism and, 69, 71; security imperative and, 129, 154–55; single party system and, 70, 129, 138, 139, 209; state crisis avoidance and, 163, 164–65, 406n22; state decline and, 83; state expansion failure and, 58; universal suffrage and, 93
Kenya African National Union (KANU), 164–65, 214–15
Kenyatta, Jomo, 12, 112, 164–65, 215, 294
Keìreìkou, Mathieu, 27, 192, 199
Khadiagala, Lynn S., 389n103, 407n49
Kibaki, Mwai, 215–16
Kikuyu, 117, 130, 164, 214–15, 231
Kohli, Atul, 73, 341–42
Kongo, 117, 130, 234–35, 313, 322, 425n45
Kony, Joseph, 279–80, 287
Krahn, 251–53, 258
Lange, Matthew, 82–83
law (rule of law): decolonization in context of, 103, 105–7; democratization and, 198; property right laws for women and, 326–27, 389n103, 407n49; shari’a and, 40–41, 120, 219, 264, 269, 270, 419n67; state capacity and, 407n49; state failure and, 76; state’s attributes, 40–41; territoriality and, 91; women’s property rights and, 407n49
leadership: overview of, 5, 7, 12; decolonization and, 11–13; democratization and, 26; development and, 364–66; legitimation imperative and, 44; politics and, 15–17; ruler’s imperative and, 78–79; social promotion and, 133–34; term limits and, 365–66; women and, 259, 327, 373, 418n47
> legislatures, 11, 29, 71, 119, 209, 217
legitimation imperative: overview of, 46–48, 74, 353–55, 390n119; constitutionalism and, 47, 155; decolonization settlement breakdown and, 155; democratization and, 195; indigenization and, 353–54; leadership and, 44; military intervention and, 147–48, 155; representative institutions and, 47; socialism and, 47; state crisis and, 173, 175, 191; state in context of conceptual debates and, 74, 390n119
Lemarchand, René, 106, 406n29, 412n31
Leonard, David, 371
Leopold II (king of Belgium), 57, 292, 397n48
Lesotho, 105, 124, 127, 309, 310, 360–61, 361–62, 381n88
Levi, Margaret, 34, 48
Levine, Ross, 346
Lewis, Arthur, 14, 17–18
Lewis, Peter, 186, 341, 343–44
liberal market (neoliberal) model: overview of, 386n55; constitutionalism and, 64–65; democratization and, 196, 210; foreign aid and, 52–53, 54, 62; foreign investments and, 65–66; integral state and, 61–62; national conference mechanism and, 64; normative state and, 53–54, 65–66; pathways to independence and, 28, 29; privatization and, 62, 65–66, 179; property rights and, 62; state and, 53–54, 65–66, 386n55; Washington Consensus and, 26, 62–63, 65–66, 352, 388n82. See also structural adjustment programs (SAPs) liberation movement, 5, 30, 60, 107–8, 159, 231, 243, 283, 310
liberation struggles: overview of, 247; during decolonization, 228, 229–34, 415n9; democratization and, 26, 65, 66; parastatalization and, 63; postindependence, 123–24, 228–29, 231, 243–44; state and, 62–65
Liberia: Africa as concept and, 6; child soldiers and, 250; civil society’s reactions to state crisis and, 192–93; democratization and, 252; development ranking for, 358, 359, 360–61, 363–64; diaspora and, 252, 260, 294; ethnicity and, 250–53, 258–59, 261; human rights abuses and, 251, 253–54, 259–60, 288; internal wars and, 381n90; international peacekeeping and, 251–52, 256–59, 261, 289; international system acceptance and, 253; interpenetrated conflicts and, 249–61, 417n32; liberal market model and, 66; management capacity of state and, 283; military intervention and rule in, 151, 252; militias and, 252–54, 286; natural resources and, 253, 258; power transfer comparisons and, 394n23; reconciliation and, 260; shadow state and, 75; state crisis and, 250, 417n32; state decline and, 83; state failure and, 75, 76; state in social imaginary and, 260–61, 314; subaltern military coups and, 145; warlords and, 251, 253–54, 259–60; women’s leadership in, 373