4. Heinl, “Collapse of the Armed Forces,” 35.
5. Hunt, Turning, 5–6, 10–12.
6. Gardner, “Hollywood Confidential, Part I,” 37.
7. Appy, Working Class War, 51. “Draft-motivated volunteers” refers to those soldiers who joined the armed forces voluntarily with the (oftentimes erroneous) perception that, by volunteering, they would obtain more favorable terms of service, such as choice of branch and avoidance of combat, than if they waited to be drafted.
8. Cortright, Soldiers in Revolt, 52; “Antiwar Sentiment is Deep at Ft. Jackson Army Base,” Militant, March 18, 1968.
9. Myers, Black, White, and Olive Drab, 189–204. For more on the Levy case, see Andrew Kopkind, “The Trial of Captain Levy,” New York Review of Books, April 11, 1968; Ira Glasser, “Justice and Captain Levy,” Columbia Forum, Spring 1969, 46–49; and Douglas E. Kneeland, “War Stirs GI Dissent,” New York Times, June 21, 1970.
10. Fred Gardner, “Hollywood Confidential, Part II,” Vietnam Generation Journal and Newsletter, vol. 3, no. 3, November 1991, 36–40. Gardner mentions his admiration for Levy, specifically for his refusal to serve and the resulting Fort Jackson court-martial.
11. Moore, Columbia and Richland County, 359.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid., 393.
14. Fred Gardner, “Case Study in Opportunism: The GI Movement,” Second Page Supplement, October 1971, 2.
15. Ibid., 2.
16. Ibid., 2–4.
17. Ibid.
18. Gardner, “Hollywood Confidential, Part I,” 4.
19. Ibid., 5.
20. McAninch, “UFO,” 1.
21. Quoted in ibid., 2.
22. Cortright, Soldiers in Revolt, 53.
23. Donald Janson, “Antiwar Coffeehouses Delight G.I.’s but Not Army,” New York Times, August 12, 1968.
24. Quoted in ibid. The “All America City Award” is a program, still in existence, begun in 1949, sponsored by the National Civic League. The award is “the oldest community recognition program in the nation . . . [and] recognizes communities whose citizens work together to identify and tackle community-wide challenges and achieve uncommon results.” Smith, Fayetteville, North Carolina, 137.
25. Janson, “Antiwar Coffeehouses Delight G.I.’s but Not Army.”
26. Schulman, The Seventies, 112.
27. Myers, Black, White, and Olive Drab, 3.
28. “No Praying on the Chapel Steps,” Vietnam GI, April 1968, 8.
29. Gardner, “Case Study in Opportunism,” 2–3.
30. “No Praying on the Chapel Steps,” 8.
31. Ibid.
32. “Two at Ft. Jackson May Face Charges,” The State, February 22, 1968; “Two at Fort Jackson Court-Martial over War Doubts,” New York Times, February 22, 1968, 10; Douglas Robinson, “Leaflets Bombard Fort Jackson G.I.’s Off-Post,” New York Times, February 24, 1968; “Two GIs Face Trial for ‘Pray-In’ on War,” Militant, February 26, 1968, 1.
33. Mailer’s Armies of the Night undoubtedly provides the most compelling account of the 1967 March on the Pentagon, though less historically “novelized” narratives can be found in Gitlin, Sixties, 254–55, and in Halstead, Out Now!, 336–40.
34. Gardner, “Hollywood Confidential, Part I,” 4.
35. “USOs for Peace are Coming,” Ally, no. 5 (June 1968), 3, Tamiment Library, New York University.
36. United States, Congress, House, Committee on Internal Security, Subversive Involvement, part 2, 2667.
37. Gardner, “Case Study in Opportunism,” 4.
38. The United States Servicemen’s Fund Records, located in the archives of the Wisconsin Historical Society, contains newsletters, correspondence, and pamphlets that demonstrate the powerful role the organization played in supporting the coffeehouse and GI movements.
39. “Introduction to USSF,” About Face! The U.S. Servicemen’s Fund Newsletter 2, no. 4 (January 1969), Underground GI Newspapers, The Sixties Project digital archives.
40. United States, Congress, House, Committee on Internal Security, Subversive Involvement, part 2, 2667.
41. Gardner, “Hollywood Confidential, Part II.”
42. The Uniform Code of Military Justice, Article 88, part of a section of articles dealing with dissent, reads: “Any commissioned officer who uses contemptuous words against the President, the Vice President, Congress, the Secretary of Defense, the Secretary of a military department, the Secretary of Transportation, or the Governor or legislature of any State, Territory, Commonwealth, or possession in which he is on duty or present shall be punished as a court-martial may direct.” The final article of the code’s “punitive” section, Article 134, reads: “Though not specifically mentioned in this chapter, all disorders and neglects to the prejudice of good order and discipline in the armed forces, all conduct of a nature to bring discredit upon the armed forces, and crimes and offenses not capital, of which persons subject to this chapter may be guilty, shall be taken cognizance of by a general, special, or summary court-martial, according to the nature and degree of the offense, and shall be punished at the discretion of that court.” Cheryl Rodewig, “Social Media Misuse Punishable Under UCMJ,” February 9, 2012. https://www.army.mil/article/73367/Social_media_misuse_punishable_under_UCMJ/.
43. John Rechy, “Conduct Unbecoming: Lieutenant on the Peace Line,” Nation, February 21, 1966, 204–8; Lynd, We Won’t Go, 181–202.
44. Cortright, Soldiers in Revolt, 51.
45. Ibid., 53–55.
46. Paul Eberle, “Dr. Levy on GI Repression,” Los Angeles Free Press, May 15, 1970.
47. United States Servicemen’s Fund, Organizational Letter, Fall 1969, GI Movement Archive, Swarthmore College Peace Collection.
48. Ibid.
49. “Introduction to USSF,” About Face! United States Servicemen’s Fund Newsletter 2, no. 4 (January 1969), Underground GI Newspapers, The Sixties Project digital archives.
50. Ibid.
51. Josh Gould, telephone interview by author, January 25, 2010.
52. Bell County Historical Commission, Story of Bell County, 34.
53. Duncan, Killeen, 94.
54. Ibid.; Bell County Historical Commission, Story of Bell County, 46–49.
55. Duncan, Killeen, 94.
56. “Fort Hood GI Haven,” Space City News, Fall 1970.
57. Zeiger, History of the Oleo Strut Coffeehouse, 3.
58. Dane, “Oleo Strut.”
59. Cortright, Soldiers in Revolt, 56.
60. “The Big Smear,” editorial comment, Killeen (Tex.) Daily Herald, July 25, 1968.
61. Dane, “Oleo Strut.” Nicholas von Hoffman’s reporting on Fort Hood in the Washington Post throughout 1968 also details the post’s intense explosion of drug use and countercultural expression among soldiers, which included a prolonged battle over allowable hair length.
62. Ibid.
63. Zeiger, History of the Oleo Strut Coffeehouse, 2.
64. At the time, when the Killeen city police department arrested Fort Hood GIs, it regularly transferred them to the custody of military police. “Frame-up at Ft. Head,” Vietnam GI, September 1968.
65. Lewes, Protest and Survive, 176.
66. Gallacci and Karabaich, Tacoma’s Waterfront, 4–8.
67. Swarner, Evergreen Post, 54–55; Archie Satterfield, “Fort Lewis ‘Search, Destroy Mission,’” Seattle Times Sunday Magazine, August 25, 1969, 28–29.
68. Swarner, Evergreen Post, 55; leaflet, Fort Lewis Military Museum, U.S. Army Museum System, Center of Military History.
69. Leaflet, Fort Lewis Military Museum, U.S. Army Museum System, Center of Military History, Fort Lewis, Wash.
70. “Military Pay Raise Bill Seen Benefit to Area,” Tacoma News Tribune, April 29, 1966, A1.
71. Wallace Turner, “GI Coffeehouse under Coast Fire,” New York Times, February 16, 1969.
72. Sale, SDS.
73. Isserman, If I Had a Hammer, 63. The Young Socialist Alliance was a Trotskyist youth group, a wing of the So
cialist Workers Party in the United States. The YSA was founded in 1960 and was active in antiwar demonstrations and other forms of radical activism through the early 1990s. See also Halstead, Out Now! Halstead’s comprehensive history covers the group’s trajectory through the 1960s and early 1970s.
74. “Statement of the University of Washington Young Socialist Alliance,” March 6, 1969, SDS Papers, accession 1080–4, box 1, University of Washington, Seattle, Special Collections, Suzzallo Library.
75. Edd Jeffords, “Coffeehouse Achieves Goal of Getting People Together,” Tacoma News Tribune, October 13, 1968.
76. Letter to Shelter Half Staff, April 21, 1969, SDS Papers, accession 1080–4, box 1, University of Washington, Seattle, Special Collections, Suzzallo Library. The GI and friend did not include their names in the letter.
77. Letter, Counterpoint, September 20, 1969, Underground GI Newspapers, The Sixties Project digital archives.
78. Jeffords, “Coffeehouse Achieves Goal of Getting People Together.”
79. Barbara Garson, interview with author, May 7, 2011.
80. Ibid.
81. Turner, “GI Coffeehouse under Coast Fire.”
CHAPTER 2
1. Donald Janson, “Antiwar Coffeehouses Delight G.I.’s but Not Army,” New York Times, August 12, 1968.
2. The most detailed source on the Fort Jackson Eight case is Halstead, GIs Speak Out against the War. See also “Army Urged to Free 8 Protesting War,” New York Times, April 12, 1969.
3. Douglas E. Kneeland, “War Stirs GI Dissent,” New York Times, June 21, 1970.
4. GIs United Against the War in Vietnam, “Statement of Aims,” in Halstead, GIs Speak Out against the War, 97.
5. Cortright, Soldiers in Revolt, 59–60.
6. “GI War ‘Dissident’ Is Army Informer,” New York Times, April 9, 1969.
7. Ben A. Franklin, “Army Bars Trial 3 Antiwar GIs; Drops Fort Jackson Case—Discharges Are Set,” New York Times, May 21, 1969.
8. Lewes, Protest and Survive, 97.
9. Halstead, GIs Speak Out against the War, 6.
10. “Fort Jackson GIs Win Victory!,” Dull Brass, vol.1, no. 2, May 1969, Underground GI Newspapers Collection, Cortright Papers, Swarthmore College Peace Collection.
11. Cortright, Soldiers in Revolt, 59–61.
12. Halstead, GIs Speak Out against the War, 9.
13. John Kifner, “Thousands of U.S. Troops Mobilized for Guard Duty at Democratic Convention,” New York Times, August 25, 1968; J. Anthony Lukas, “Chicago Is Prague,” ibid., August 25, 1968. See also interview with Haywood T. “The Kid” Kirkland (Ari Sesu Merretazon) in Terry, Bloods, 100. In the interview, one of several conversations Terry had with black GIs who refused riot duty at Chicago, Merretazon expresses a common sentiment: “I told them I’m not going there holding no weapon in front of my brothers and sisters.” “GI Black Panther Lists Motivation,” Overseas Weekly–Pacific Edition, May 3, 1969.
14. “Remember the Fort Hood 43!,” Vietnam GI, August 1969.
15. Ibid.
16. Zeiger, History of the Oleo Strut Coffeehouse, 3.
17. Kifner, “Thousands of U.S. Troops Mobilized for Guard Duty at Democratic Convention.”
18. “3 More Convicted in Protest at Fort,” New York Times, September 29, 1968; Fred P. Graham, “Testing the Issue of Soldiers’ Rights,” ibid., March 23, 1969.
19. Josh Gould, telephone interview by author, January 25, 2010.
20. Zeiger, History of the Oleo Strut Coffeehouse, 3.
21. “A Report from the Oleo Strut,” New SOS News, vol. 1, no. 4, July 1969. “EM” is a common army term meaning enlisted man (or men).
22. Allah, In the Name of Allah.
23. “Report from the Oleo Strut.”
24. Ibid.
25. GI Civil Liberties Defense Committee, Free Richard Chase pamphlet, December 20, 1969, http://sirnosir.com/archives_and_resources/library/pamphlets_publications (accessed July 19, 2010).
26. “Free All Political Prisoners,” Left Face, no. 5, January 1970, Underground GI Newspapers Collection, Cortright Papers, Swarthmore College Peace Collection.
27. Quoted in Zeiger, History of the Oleo Strut Coffeehouse, 7.
28. Ibid.
29. “Political Prisoner at Fort Hood,” Black Panther, December 27, 1969; “Free Richard Chase,” GI Press Service, vol. 1, no. 13; GI Civil Liberties Defense Committee, Free Richard Chase pamphlet; “Free All Political Prisoners,” Left Face, no. 5, January 1970; “Riot Control,” Aboveground, vol. 1, no. 6, December 1969, Underground GI Newspapers Collection, Cortright Papers, Swarthmore College Peace Collection; “No to Riot Control: GI Gets Two Years Hard Labor,” Black Panther, January 10, 1970.
30. “Richard Chase Sentenced,” GI Press Service, vol. 2, no. 1, January 21, 1970.
31. Zeiger, History of the Oleo Strut Coffeehouse, 7.
32. Oppenheimer, American Military, 100; “G.I. Press,” WIN, December 1, 1969, 22–25.
33. Quoted in Stacewicz, Winter Soldiers, 225.
34. Ibid., 226.
35. David Zeiger, interview by author, January 5, 2010.
36. Moser, New Winter Soldiers, 99. The story of the shooting is recounted in detail by Dave Cline in Stacewicz, Winter Soldiers, 222–26. See also Seymour V. Connor and Mark Odintz, “Bell County,” Handbook of Texas Online, http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/hcb06, accessed April 17, 2012. This article details the Ku Klux Klan’s presence in Bell County, Texas (including Killeen), beginning during the Reconstruction period and reappearing in waves throughout the twentieth century.
37. Christopher S. Wren, “Protest in the Ranks! The Military’s New Dilemma,” Look, vol. 32, no. 21, October 15, 1968; Ben A. Franklin, “Antiwar G.I.’s and Army Head for Clash over Vietnam,” New York Times, April 28, 1969, 22; “Exclusive! The Plot to Unionize the U.S. Army,” Esquire, August 1968; “Extraordinary Military,” Life, May 23, 1969.
38. Fonda, My Life So Far, 258.
39. Fred Gardner, “Hollywood Confidential, Part I,” 35.
40. Nat Henderson, “Actress Barred from Ft. Hood,” Killeen Daily Herald, May 12, 1970, 1.
41. Quoted in Martin Dreyer, “War and Peace at the Oleo Strut,” Houston Chronicle, July 12, 1970.
42. Hershberger, Jane Fonda’s War, 17.
43. Armed Forces Day was created in 1949 as a national holiday to honor all military branches, an action stemming from the unification of all the branches under the Department of Defense in the wake of World War II.
44. Zeiger, History of the Oleo Strut Coffeehouse, 8. The Oleo Strut staff initially did not believe it was possible to organize a large demonstration of GIs in Killeen and instead planned to offer “Nine Days in May,” an alternative week of educational programs and guest speakers at the coffeehouse. As the national event approached, and it became clear that many base towns would be holding large public demonstrations, those on the staff changed their minds. On May 10, they decided to attempt to organize an Armed Farces Day parade through the center of downtown Killeen. The May 16 parade committee, composed of Oleo Strut staff and Fort Hood GIs, applied to Killeen City Hall for a parade permit and were denied, but a constitutional lawyer hired by the committee sent a letter threatening legal action that convinced the city to grant the permit.
45. Quoted in Stacewicz, Winter Soldiers, 225.
46. “1,000 GIs March in Killeen,” Fatigue Press, no. 23, August 1970; “Armed Farces Day, May 20,” Off the Brass, vol. 1, no. 3, May 1970.
47. Duncan, Killeen, 151.
48. “Armed Forces Day,” A Four Year Bummer, vol. 2, no. 4, June 1970.
49. “1,000 GIs March in Killeen.”
50. Zeiger interview.
51. GI Legal Self Defense pamphlet, Spring 1971, http://sirnosir.com/archives_and_resources/library/pamphlets_publications/gi_legal_self_defense/cover.html, accessed March 22, 2011. Originally produced by the “People’s House,” a GI coffeehouse and movement center in Clarksville, Tennessee, outside Fort Camp
bell, the pamphlet was reproduced in various forms and distributed around military bases throughout the country and overseas. In addition to relevant citations from the Uniform Code of Military Justice, the pamphlet offered GIs tips on avoiding harassment and protecting their civil liberties.
52. Jay Dorman, “The Strut Limps Along,” Houston Post, April 12, 1971; Cortright, Soldiers in Revolt, 67.
53. Zeiger, History of the Oleo Strut Coffeehouse, 12.
54. Tom Butler, “Protest March, Rally Held in Orderly Manner,” Killeen Daily Herald, May 16, 1971; Duncan, Killeen, 151.
55. Zeiger, History of the Oleo Strut Coffeehouse, 13.
56. “We Don’t Want Your Rip Off Store,” Camp News, vol. 2, no. 8, 1971.
57. Dave Cline, interview in the film Sir! No Sir! Cline’s detailed description of the Tyrrell’s boycott in Killeen casts the action as one of the high points of the GI movement.
58. “2 of 10 Post Bonds in Store Picketing,” Killeen Daily Herald, June 3, 1971; “Great Lakes: MDM Wins First Round of Jewelry Store Boycott,” Camp News, vol. 2, no. 8, 1971.
59. “Analysis: The Tyrrell’s Boycott in Killeen,” staff report, GI News and Discussion Bulletin, no. 7, July 1971. Cam Cunningham was an Austin attorney who defended the Oleo Strut’s staff, as well as Fort Hood GIs, on several occasions from 1970 to 1972.
60. “Boycott in Killeen Advances,” GI News and Discussion Bulletin, no. 6, June 1971. Farmworkers’ organizations in Texas were, at the time, involved in a similar court fight challenging the constitutionality of secondary boycott laws.
61. Anderson, “GI Movement and the Response from the Brass,” 110. Anderson states, “The [Tyrrell’s] boycott spread to eleven bases, significantly reducing sales. The chain store ended the action by negotiating new sales procedures with GI organizations.”
62. Petition to Free Harvey and Priest, Fort Hood United Front, http://sirnosir.com/archives_and_resources/library/pamphlets_publications/petitions/harvey_priest.html, accessed June 1, 2010.
63. Cortright, Soldiers in Revolt, 84. Activists chose Stillhouse Lake because groups were not required to obtain permits for picnics, barbecues, and other recreational activities.
64. Ibid.; Zeiger interview.
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