29. Halstead, Out Now!, 260–91. Halstead’s internal history sheds light on the complicated racial dynamics within radical organizations of the late 1960s and early 1970s. For a military-specific perspective on race, see also Halstead, GIs Speak Out against the War; and Westheider, Brothers in Arms.
30. United States, Congress, House, Committee on Internal Security, Investigation of Attempts to Subvert the United States Armed Services, part 3, 7264–71.
31. Marine Corps Gazette, January 1971, 46.
32. Black Unity, vol. 1, no. 1, August 1970.
33. Zeiger, History of the Oleo Strut Coffeehouse, 22.
34. GI News and Discussion Bulletin, no. 10, January 1972, 61.
35. Ibid., 61.
36. Rossinow, “Revolution Is about Our Lives,” 101–3. Substantial discussions of drugs and the antiwar movement can also be found in Gitlin, Sixties, 214–35; Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets, 278; and DeBenedetti and Chatfield, American Ordeal, 189.
37. Gould’s monologue was featured in the Newsreel-produced film Summer ’68 (Norman Fruchter and John Douglas, 1969), which profiled the Oleo Strut along with a number of other New Left projects. Footage from Summer ’68 can also be seen in Sir! No Sir!
38. “GI Coffeehouse Opens,” Fun Travel Adventure, no. 10, August 1969, Tamiment Library, New York University.
39. “Covered Wagon Rolls,” Helping Hand, no. 10, September 1969.
40. “Haymarket Square,” Project Report, GI News and Discussion Bulletin, no. 10, January 1972, 21. For more information on heroin abuse in the Vietnam-era U.S. military, see Westin and Shaffer, Heroes and Heroin.
41. “Fort Hood GI Haven,” Space City News, Fall 1970.
42. Zeiger, History of the Oleo Strut Coffeehouse, 26.
43. Ibid., 25.
44. GI News and Discussion Bulletin, no. 10, January 1972, 23.
45. Ibid., 50.
46. Uhl, Vietnam Awakening, 52.
47. Yellin, Our Mothers’ War, 86–88.
48. Faith, Bob Hope, xxii.
49. Alvin Shuster, “GIs in Vietnam High on Hope’s Marijuana Jokes,” New York Times, December 23, 1970.
50. “Bob Hope versus FTA,” Camp News, vol. 3, no. 1, September 1971.
51. Howard Levy, interview by author, January 30, 2010. Levy confirmed many details of the FTA show’s conception also found in Fred Gardner, “Hollywood Confidential, Part II,” Vietnam Generation Journal and Newsletter, vol. 3, no. 3, November 1991. The FTA show is also discussed in Feiffer, Backing into Forward.
52. Though most GIs would recognize the acronym as meaning “Fuck the Army,” the FTA show performers usually referred to the show’s name (and overall message) as “Free the Army.” The FTA show was also often referred to as the “USSF Show.”
53. Gardner, “Hollywood Confidential, Part II.”
54. Ibid.
55. The U.S. military’s attempts at “repressive tolerance” throughout the Vietnam era are discussed in more detail in Bailey, America’s Army.
56. Lacey Fosburgh, “Antiwar Troupe Formed to Tour Bases,” New York Times, February 17, 1971.
57. “Left Face,” New Republic, March 13, 1971, 9.
58. Michael Kernan, “GI Movement: A Show to Call Its Own,” Washington Post, March 15, 1971.
59. James T. Wooten, “500 G.I.’s at Debut of Antiwar Show,” New York Times, March 15, 1971.
60. “Antiwar Show for GIs Has Receptive Audience,” Camp News, vol. 2, no. 2, March 1971.
61. Hershberger, Jane Fonda’s War, 45; Roger Greenspun, “Jane Fonda’s ‘F.T.A.’ Show Now a Film,” New York Times, July 22, 1972.
62. “Antiwar Show for GIs Has Receptive Audience.”
63. Fonda, My Life So Far, 273.
64. Quoted in Zeiger, History of the Oleo Strut Coffeehouse, 18.
65. “Fonda Brings Antiwar Show to Hood,” Killeen Daily Herald, September 22, 1971.
66. Cortright, Soldiers in Revolt, 127–33.
67. Fonda, My Life So Far, 274.
68. Zeiger, History of the Oleo Strut Coffeehouse, 18.
69. Gardner, “Hollywood Confidential, Part II,” 10.
70. Fred Gardner, “Case Study in Opportunism: The GI Movement,” Second Page Supplement, October 1971, 7.
71. Hershberger, Jane Fonda’s War, 46. The quote comes from Fonda’s FBI file, LA 157-5089, 20. For more on the FTA show’s impact on bases, see “Jane Fonda Antiwar Show Stage Near Fort Bragg,” New York Times, March 14, 1973; Leticia Kent, “It’s Not Just ‘Fonda and Company,’” New York Times, March 21, 1971; “4,000 See ‘Free the Army,’” Honolulu Advertiser, November 26, 1971; and Gary Arnold, “FTA: The Fonda Way,” Washington Post, June 28, 1972.
72. “Strut Staff Raps,” Space City News, October 1970.
73. Zeiger, History of the Oleo Strut Coffeehouse, 9.
74. Ibid., 10.
75. “Fort Hood GI Haven.”
76. “The Oleo Strut,” staff report, November 1, 1970, http://sirnosir.com/archives_and_resources/library/pamphlets_publications/oleo_strut/staff_report/page_1.html, accessed May 26, 2010. “ETS” stands for “Expiration of Term of Service.” Since Fort Hood was one of the main return bases for soldiers back from Vietnam, many soldiers were discharged from the military and left Killeen, Texas, as a result. Some ETS’s, as they were called, stayed in town, such as Dave Cline, who remained in Texas after his discharge to continue his activism against the war.
77. Ibid.
78. Zeiger, History of the Oleo Strut Coffeehouse, 10.
79. “Oleo Strut,” staff report.
80. Zeiger, History of the Oleo Strut Coffeehouse, 11.
81. Ibid., 22.
82. Young, Vietnam Wars, 230–40.
83. Zeiger interview.
84. Activity at other western air force and navy bases included the creation of the Covered Wagon coffeehouse in Mountain Home, Idaho.
85. Pacific Counseling Service pamphlet, 1973, http://sirnosir.com/archives_and_resources/library/pamphlets_publications/repression/shelter_half/page1.html, accessed July 19, 2010.
86. Matthew Rinaldi, “The Olive-Drab Rebels: Military Organizing during the Vietnam Era,” Radical America 8, May–June 1974, 45–46.
87. Jeffrey C. Alexander, “HPC Opening Its Offices to SDS Draft Counselors,” Harvard Crimson, December 7, 1967.
88. Jones and Wessely, Shell Shock to PTSD.
89. “Pacific Counseling Center,” box 3, folder 7, United States Servicemen’s Fund Records, Wisconsin Historical Society. The PCS ultimately opened offices at U.S. military installations in Japan, Hawaii, the Philippines, and Korea.
90. Anderson, “GI Movement and the Response from the Brass,” 110; “GIs for Peace Moves Ahead,” Camp News, vol. 1, no. 7, January 15, 1971; “Farm Workers Press Lettuce Boycott,” Harvard Crimson, November 13, 1970. Playing on young GIs’ resentment of military authority, underground GI newspapers during this period frequently employed the slogan “Lifers Eat Lettuce.”
91. Strategies and Tactics for GI Organizing, GI Alliance pamphlet, 1971, http://sirnosir.com/archives_and_resources/library/pamphlets_publications/repression/shelter_half/page1.html, accessed July 19, 2010.
92. “We Are One!,” Fed Up!, vol. 2, no. 1, March 1971, Underground GI Newspapers, The Sixties Project digital archives.
93. “La Prensa Libre: Workers Strike Farah Co.,” Lewis-McChord Free Press, July 1972, 7; “Cannery Workers,” ibid., July 1972, 7. The University of Washington maintains an extensive website, “The Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project,” at http://depts.washington.edu/civilr/, accessed June 19, 2011. The site contains numerous articles and primary sources that details the Pacific Northwest’s history of radical labor and civil rights organizing.
94. Griffith, U.S. Army’s Transition to the All-Volunteer Force, 190–93. Griffith’s study describes how the army explicitly sought to expand the number of women in noncombat positions in the early 1970s, mainly as a way to fill personnel gaps in the absence of a draft system.
&nb
sp; 95. Pacific Counseling Service pamphlet.
96. Goldman, “Changing Role of Women in the Armed Forces,” 892. See also Herbert, Camouflage Isn’t Only for Combat.
97. Pacific Counseling Service pamphlet.
98. Griffith, U.S. Army’s Transition to the All-Volunteer Force, 234. Griffith explains how military officials were worried that, in their rush to make military service more attractive to the general public, they had produced expectations about living and working conditions that the army was not prepared to meet. In a survey of sixty-four army generals in 1972, the army received reports of widespread unhappiness within the ranks and grouped the generals’ suggestions into four major categories: “increased job satisfaction, better personnel management and leadership, improved living and working conditions, and improvement in the Army’s public image.” Ibid., 234.
99. Cortright, Soldiers in Revolt, 58. Chapter 4 provides more detail on the GI antiwar movement’s shift in concentration to the navy and air force in the later years of the Vietnam War.
100. “Tenants Survey,” Lewis-McChord Free Press, December 1971, 8; “Tenants Win Improvements,” ibid., January 1972.
101. “The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly,” ibid., February 1972, 7.
102. Lee, “Fed Up at Fort Lewis,” 21–23.
103. Fort Lewis Collective pamphlet, 1974, http://sirnosir.com/archives_and_resources/library/pamphlets_publications/repression/shelter_half/page1.html, accessed July 19, 2010.
EPILOGUE
1. Jon R. Anderson, “New Era for Coffeehouses Rooted in Anti-war Tradition,” Army Times, March 7, 2010.
2. The Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors was itself formed in 1948 in association with the return of the peacetime draft. The organization is dedicated to helping people avoid or resist military enlistment and was particularly active during the Vietnam War era.
3. Tod Ensign, “Shooting Pool Alone at Ft. Drum: Lessons for the GI Movement,” Veterans for Peace Newsletter, July 2009.
4. Ibid.
5. Mark Thompson, “A Mounting Suicide Rate Prompts an Army Response,” Time, December 14, 2009. For a comprehensive view of the PTSD crisis and related phenomena, see Finley, Fields of Combat.
Bibliography
ARCHIVAL COLLECTIONS
Contemporary Culture Collection, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pa.
Underground GI Newspapers Collection
Graffiti
RITA-ACT
Short Times
Up against the Wall
National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, Md.
Records of the Historical Services Division relating to army organizations and operations (1965–74)
William Westmoreland Papers
Suzzallo Library, Special Collections, University of Washington, Seattle
Swarthmore College Peace Collection, Swarthmore, Pa.
David Cortright Papers
Underground GI Newspapers Collection
Aboveground
Bacon
Dull Brass
Fatigue Press
Getting Together
Gigline
G.I. Voice
Hair
Head-On!
Kill for Peace
Left Face
Liberated Barracks
Marine Blues
Military Law Project News-Notes
Navy Times Are Changin’
New Testament
Next Step
Omega
Open Ranks
Potemkin
Semper Fi
Up from the Bottom
Veterans Stars and Strips for Peace
Wildcat
Your Military Left
GI Movement Archive
Tamiment Library, New York University, New York
Ally
Anchorage Troop
Committee for G.I. Rights Defense Committee
Fort Hood 3 Defense Committee
Fun Travel Adventure
Great Lakes Movement for a Democratic Military
National Mobilization Committee to End the War
Off the Brass
Servicemen’s LINK to Peace
U.S. Servicemen’s Fund
Vietnam Moratorium Committee (U.S.)
U.S. Army Heritage and Education Center, Carlisle Barracks, Pa.
Individual Post Histories
Fort Hood
Fort Jackson
Fort Lewis
Vietnam GI (personal collection)
Wisconsin Historical Society, Madison
A Four Year Bummer
Camp News
Coffee House News
GIs United against the War in Vietnam Correspondence
Student Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam Records
United States Servicemen’s Fund Records
Up against the Bulkhead
DIGITAL ARCHIVES
Pacific Northwest Antiwar and Radical History Project, University of Washington, Seattle
Sir! No Sir! Dir. David Zeiger. Displaced Films, 2005. GI Movement Archives, Intertwingle New Media
The Sixties Project, Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities, University of Virginia
Underground GI Newspapers
About Face! The U.S Servicemen’s Fund Newsletter
As You Were
Bond
Counterpoint
Duck Power
Fed Up!
Fun Travel Adventure
GI C.L.D.C. Newsletter
GI News and Discussion Bulletin
G.I. Press Service
Helping Hand
Last Harass
New SOS News
Second Page Supplement
Shakedown
Vietnam Generation Journal and Newsletter
WIN
Vietnam Center and Archive, Oral History Project, Texas Tech University, Lubbock
INTERVIEWS
All interview recordings are in the author’s possession.
Coontz, Stephanie. Telephone interview by author. May 25, 2011.
Gardner, Fred. Interview by author. Alameda, Calif., January 15, 2011.
Garson, Barbara. Interview by author. New York, N.Y., May 7, 2011.
Gould, Josh. Telephone interview by author. January 25, 2010.
Levy, Howard. Interview by author. Brooklyn, N.Y., January 30, 2010.
Zeiger, David. Interview by author. Los Angeles, Calif., January 5, 2010.
REPORTS AND INVESTIGATIONS
Olson, Howard C., and R. William Rae. Determination of the Potential for Dissidence in the US Army. McLean, Va.: Research Analysis Corp., 1971.
United States. Congress. House. Committee on Internal Security. Investigation of Attempts to Subvert the United States Armed Services, Parts 1–3: Hearings, Ninety-Second Congress, First Session. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1972.
. Subversive Involvement in Disruption of 1968 Democratic Party National Convention, Parts 1 and 2: Hearings before the Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, Ninetieth Congress, Second Session. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1968.
. The Workers World Party and Its Front Organizations. Washington: United States Congress, 1974.
United States. Congressional Black Caucus Report. Congressional Record. 92nd Congress, 2nd Session. Washington, D.C., October 14, 1972.
U.S. District Court for the District of South Carolina (Columbia Division). The U.F.O., Inc., et al. v. E. Harry Agnew. Trial Transcript, April 25, 1970.
Vineberg, Robert, and Elaine N. Taylor. Summary and Review of Studies of the VOLAR Experiment, 1971: Installation Reports for Forts Benning, Bragg, Carson, and Ord. Alexandria, Va.: Human Resources Research Organization, 1972.
Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Center for Advanced Studies and Analyses. “Potential Impact of Cultural Change on the Navy in the 1970s.” August 1, 1972.
NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS
Black Panther
Columbia State
Commonw
eal
Ebony
Esquire
Fayetteville Observer
Guardian
Harper’s
Journal of American History
Journal of Military History
Killeen (Tex.) Daily Herald
Liberation News Service
Life
Look
Los Angeles Times
Militant
Newsweek
New York Post
New York Times
New York Times Magazine
San Francisco Chronicle
Seattle Times
The State (Columbia, S.C.)
Tacoma News Tribune
Time
Wall Street Journal
Washington Post
DISSERTATIONS, THESES, AND PAPERS
Giles, Doris B. “The Antiwar Movement in Columbia, South Carolina 1965–1972.” Seminar paper, South Caroliniana Library, University of South Carolina, Columbia, 1987.
Haines, Harry William. “The GI Underground Press: Two Case Studies of Alternative Military Newspapers.” Master’s thesis, University of Utah, 1976.
Hayes, James Robert. “The War within a War: Dissent in the Military with an Emphasis upon the Vietnam-Era.” Ph.D. diss., University of Connecticut, 1975.
Hensley, William Edward. “The Vietnam Anti-war Movement: History and Criticism.” Ph.D. diss., University of Oregon, 1979.
Keeney, Craig Mury. “Resistance: A History of Anti–Vietnam War Protests in Two Southern Universities, 1966–1970.” Master’s thesis, University of South Carolina, Columbia, 2003.
Kindig, Jessie. “Demilitarized Zone: The GI Movement and the Reorganization of the Military at Fort Lewis during the Vietnam War.” Master’s thesis, University of Washington, Seattle, 2008.
Kramer, Michael Jacob. “The Civics of Rock: Sixties Countercultural Music and the Transformation of the Public Sphere.” Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 2006.
Lair, Meredith H. “Beauty, Bullets, and Ice Cream: Re-imagining Daily Life in the ’Nam.” Ph.D. diss., Pennsylvania State University, 2004.
Lee, Sam J. “Fed Up at Fort Lewis: A Regional History of the GI Protest Movement against the War in Vietnam.” Master’s thesis, Washington State University, 1997.
Moser, Richard. “From Deference to Defiance: America, the Citizen-Soldier and theVietnam Era.” Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University Press, 1996.
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