Wild Horse Country
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and fertility control, 245–46, 257, 259–62
grazing program, 219
impact of roundups on, 172–73
increased funding for, 177, 187
Johnston’s dealings with, 139, 141, 143, 146
lands controlled by, xx, 12
Leigh’s suits against, 170
on methods ranchers used in roundups, 147
mismanagement by, 195
and mountain lions as predators, 266, 267, 275–76, 279–83, 286–87, 290
near extinction of wild horses, 133
and Nevada’s ban on roundups, 142–44
ranchers’ attitude toward, 204, 208; See also range wars
roundups (“gathers”) by, xx–xxvi, xxviii–xxxii; See also roundups
sale of horses by, See sale authority horses
slaughter conspiracy theories, 223
storage of wild horses by, xxiii, xxxii, xxxvii–xxxviii; See also storage/holding of horses
structure and leadership of, 290
sustainable land management mission of, 174
and Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act, 151, 152
and Wild Horse Annie Law, 146–48
wild horse management mandate for, xxxv–xxxviii; See also Wild Horse and Burro Program
and wild horse population size, xix, xxxvi, 163–64, 174
Burford, Robert, 175, 176, 181
Burns, Conrad, 190
burros, xxxiii, xxxiv
Canada, xxxvii, 47
Capson, Robert, 229–31
Catholic priests, 35, 45–46
Catlin, George, 52, 191
Central America, 40
Cerbat Mountains, 281–82
Chappel, Ernest, 92
Chappel, Phillip M., 60–64, 83, 84, 86, 87, 102
Chappel Brothers, 60–65, 81–84, 86–98, 102
Cheyenne, 49, 53, 55
cimarrones, 49
Clovis people, 31–32
Cody, William “Buffalo Bill,” 16, 116, 117
Columbus, Christopher, 38
Comanche (mustang), xviii
Comanche (tribe), 43, 47, 50–55
conservation, 149–50, 151; See also Wild Horse Annie (Velma Bronn Johnston)
Coolidge, Grace, 93
Coronado, Francisco Vásquez de, 35, 40, 41
corruption
in adoption program, 181–87
and sale authority horses, 227, 229–31, 238–41
Cortés, Hernán, 39, 40
Coryphodon, 20
Cothran, Gus, 281–82
cowboy myth, 121–25
Cree, 47
Crow, 47, 53–55
Darwin, Charles, 15, 17
Davis, Tom, 225–41
Department of Agriculture, 285, 289
Department of Justice, 184–85, 240, 241
Department of the Interior, 184, 185, 187, 241, 258, 285, 288
de Soto, Hernando, 40–41
DeVoto, Bernard, 7
Díaz, Bernal, 40
Dillon, Matt, 258
Dinohippus, 26–27
Disappointment Valley, 242–44, 246, 247
Dobie, Frank, 57, 68, 103, 109–10, 115, 133–34
domestic horses, xxvii, 91
Dwyer, Thomas, 56
Edsall, Merle, 229
Eigell, Robert W., 64
environmental ethics, 150
Environmental Impact Statements (EISs), xxvi
Eocene Epoch, 6–7, 20, 22–23
Eohippus, 18–19
Equus, 28–29
euthanization of captured horses, 176–77, 180–81, 190–91, 195, 210
evolution of native horses, 4–32
and climate changes, 22–24
extinction and reintroduction by Europeans, 30
and geological changes, 4, 5, 13, 21–22, 26
Marsh’s horse lineage, 15–18
and native tribes’ acquisition of horses, 44–45
and spread of grass, 23–25, 28
and time of “greenhouse Earth,” 13
“Evolution of the Cow-Puncher, The” (Wister), 122–24
Fallini, Giovanni (grandfather), 200–202
Fallini, Giovanni (grandson), 203
Fallini, Joe, 198, 202–10, 213, 219, 220
Fallini, Susan, 203
Faust, Fred (Max Brand), 125
Federal Land Policy and Management Act (FLPMA), 174
“fee waiver” adoption program, 178–80
Felix, Marty, 258
fertility control, 242–64
as alternative to roundups, 245–48
Assateague Island test of, 253–55
BLM’s funding for, 246
cost of, 257
early attempts at, 252
grassroots movement for, 246, 259, 262
Holmes’ work with, 242–50, 258, 263–64
Kirkpatrick’s work with, 249–58, 261–62
long-lasting vaccine for, 261
National Academy of Sciences recommendation for, 259
as promising political alternative, 245
PZP vaccine for, 245–46, 249–64
by volunteers, 257–60, 262
Fish Springs HMA, 262–63
FLPMA (Federal Land Policy and Management Act), 174
FOAL (Friends of a Legacy), 258
FOIA (Freedom of Information Act), 224–25
Ford Mustang, 126–27
Fowler, Jacob, 54–55
Franklin, Benjamin, 110
Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), 224–25
Friends of a Legacy (FOAL), 258
Friends of Animals, 262–63
Fund for Animals, The, 211
Galloway, James, 182–83, 185
Gastornis, 13, 28
“gathers,” xxiv
Goicoechea, Julian, 147
Grant, Ulysses S., 56
grass, 23–25, 28
Great Basin, xiv, 280
“great horse dispersal,” 46
Great Plains, 1
“Great Transformation,” 24
“greenhouse Earth,” 13
Grey, Lina Roth “Dolly,” 119–21
Grey, Pearl Zane, 111–13, 117–21, 127–28
Gude, Gregory, 151
Hanson, Floyd, 131–32
Hastings, Doc, 194
Haycox, Ernest, 125
Henry, Marguerite, 254
Herd Areas, xxxv, 12
Herd Management Areas (HMAs), xxvi, xxxv, 12, 193, 207, 209, 286, 287; See also individual areas
hindgut digestion, 25–26
Hipparion, 26
HMAs, See Herd Management Areas
Hodel, Donald, 180–81
“holding” system, xxxviii; See also storage/holding of horses
Holmes, TJ, 242–50, 258, 263–64
Horse Association of America, 92–93
horsehides, 71–72, 77
horsemeat industry, 60–103
Chappel Brothers, 60–65, 81–84, 86–98, 102
early factories, 81–82
end of, 102–3
and other uses of captured mustangs, 72–74
public attitudes toward, 62–63, 84–86, 92–93, 100–102, 150, 151
rounding up horses for, 64–70
and Westerners’ attitudes toward wild horses, 74–81
and World War I, 63–64
Horse Nations, 1, 46–47, 50, 54, 55, 74, 104–5
horse stealing, 45
Hughes, Robert, 188–89, 192
Hughes Ranch, 188–89, 192
Humane Society of the United States, 250, 258, 260
Huxley, Thomas, 17–18
Hyaenodons, 24, 28
Hyde, Dayton, 188
Hyracotherium, 14–15, 18–23
Ickes, Harold, 209
Incas, 39
Indian ponies, 49–52
Irving, Washington, 66–67, 104–6
James, Will, xviii–xix
Jewell, Sally, 191
Johnston, Velma Bronn “Wild Horse Annie,” 12
9–31, 134–55, 157–58, 167, 252
Jones, Buffalo, 119–20
Kathrens, Ginger, 239
Kendall, George Wilkins, 108
Ken-L Ration, 64, 83–84
Kerr, Gerald, 146
“King of the Drove,” 292–95
Kiowa, 47, 49, 53–55
Kirkpatrick, Jay, 249–58, 261–62, 270
Kunz, Dennis, 229–31
Lakota, 50
Land of Little Rain, The (Austin), xvii
Lappin, Dawn, 135, 212–13, 215
Last of the Plainsmen, The (Grey), 120
Leigh, Laura, 165–72, 222–26
Leopold, Aldo, 149, 293
Little Book Cliffs Wild Horse Area/Range, 248–49, 257–58
Litts, Frank, 88–100
Liu, Irwin, 253
Lone Ranger, The, 117
Longstreet, Jack, 162
long-term holding of horses, 187–96
Lord, Russell, 84–86
Ludlum, Alia, 183, 185
Mandan, 47
Man Who Shot Liberty Valance, The (movie), 114
Marsh, Othniel, 15–18
Masters, Ben, 195
McClure, James, 175, 178
McPhee, John, 4
Melville, Herman, 108–9
Mendoza, Martha, 183, 186, 229
Mesohippus, 23–24
Mexico, 39
Mézières, Athanase de, 51
Middle Sitter (Many Horses), 54
Miocene Epoch, 26–27
Miohippus, 23, 24
Misty of Chincoteague (Henry), 254
Moby-Dick (Melville), 108–9
Montgomery Pass, 266, 268–73, 276–77, 282–83
mountain lions as predators, 265–95
advantages of, 266, 287–88
attempts to wipe out, 284–86
characteristics of, 273–75
evolution of mountain lions, 278–79
and legend of wild horses, 292–95
officials’ opinions about, 266, 267
political implications of, 289
storing horses vs. allowing predation, 290, 292
Turner’s work on, 268–73, 275–80, 282–83
“Mustang Desert, The,” 54
mustangs; See also wild horses
captured, uses of, 65, 72–74
catching, 66–70
characteristics of, xviii, xxvi–xxviii
collapse of market for, 81
defined, xxxiv–xxxv
DNA determination of ancestry of, 58–59
first Americans’ writing about, 55–57
as folk heroes, xxxvii
homes for, xxxvii
horsemeat from, See horsemeat industry
Indian ponies, 49–52
movement for legal protection of, 129–55
myths and legends about, xix, xxv; See also myths and legends about mustangs
as native horses, See native horses
population size, 38, 57
PZP vaccine and, 256
roundups of, xx–xxvi, xxviii–xxxii; See also roundups
as school mascots, xxxviii
from Spanish conquest/settlement, 36, 40–42; See also reintroduction of wild horses
as symbol, xxxviii
use of term, xxxiv
Westerners’ attitudes toward, 74–81
wild horses vs., xxxiv
Mustangs, The (Dobie), 57, 103, 133–34
myths and legends about mustangs, 104–28
American values and ideals embodied in, 105, 110, 113–17
changes in, 109–10, 115, 117
controlling horse populations while preserving, 292–95
and cowboy myth, 121–25
disappearance of, 214
and Grey’s writings, 111–13, 117–21, 127–28
Irving’s hearing/recording of, 105, 106
and legend of the West, 114–16
noble companion version of, 113–14, 117, 121
and significance of mustangs in settling the West, 110–14
Silver King, 132
in Westerns, 117–28
White Stallion, 105–10, 114–15, 120, 126, 128, 132, 292–95
Wild Horse Annie myth, 134–36
and Wister’s writing, 121–25
Nárvaez, Pánfilo de, 38, 39
National Academy of Sciences, 258–59, 266, 267
National Cattleman’s Association, 152
National Park Service, 253–54
native animals
extinctions and reintroductions of, 32–33
special legal rights for, 4–5
native horses, 1–33
arguments against concept of, 3–4, 33
Bamforth’s work on, 30–32
defining, 4–5
evolution of, See evolution of native horses
extinction and reintroduction by Europeans, 30; See also reintroduction of wild horses
fossil evidence of, 3, 6–10, 12–17, 19–23, 26–27, 29, 32
Rose’s work on, 5–13, 19–21, 27, 29
natural resources, exploitation of, 63, 70–71
Navajo, 42, 43, 45, 47
Nellis Air Force Base, 212
Nevada Department of Agriculture, 159
Nevada Division of Wildlife, 286
Nevada Test Site, 207
New England, 40
New York City, 72–74, 81
Nez Perce, 47
Nimravidae, 24
Nixon, Richard, xxxiii, 150, 154–55
Oñate, Juan de, 41–42
Osage, 49
Owen, Sir Richard, 15, 18
Parahippus, 24–25
Parman, George, 216–17
Parrington, Vernon, 71
Pawnee, 47
Peabody, George, 15
Phorusrhacidae (terror birds), 28
Pike, Zebulon, 55–56, 69
Pine Nut Mountains HMA, 262
Pizarro, Francisco, 39
Pliohippus, 26
Pogacnik, Tom, 186
population size of wild horses, xix, xxxvi, 57
in 1978, 174
in 1983, 210
in 2016, 193
Appropriate Management Level, xxvi, 163–64
in areas with mountain lions, 272
on Assateague Island, 254
BLM estimates of, xix, 156, 170
BLM mandate to control, 209; See also fertility control; mountain lions as predators; roundups; Wild Horse and Burro Program
early herds, 38
extinction and reintroduction by Europeans, 30; See also reintroduction of wild horses
following Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act, 156
natural die-off of uncontrolled horses, 212–13
Ryden on, 157
sustainable, 193–94, 292
porcine zona pellucida (PZP), 245–46, 249–64, 291
Posada, Alonso de, 43–44
predators, 266, 267, 276, 284–88; See also mountain lions as predators
Protect Mustangs, 262
Protohippus, 26
Prulis, John, 211
Pryor Mountain Wild Horse Range, 251–52, 258
public attitudes toward killing horses, 62–63, 84–86, 92–93, 100–102
public land, 214
control of grazing on, 201–2, 217
federal subsidies to ranchers on, 218–20
number of wild horses vs. number of cattle on, 170
Pueblo people, 34–35
first reaction to Spanish horses, 40
Oñate’s settlers among, 42
Pueblo Revolt, 36–37, 45–46
runaways from Spanish ranches, 42
trade by, 42, 44
treatment by Spanish conquistadors, 35–36
Pueblo Revolt, 36–37, 45–46
PZP vaccine, 245–46, 249–64, 291
Quaker Oats Company, 102
Quaternary Extinction, 32
railroads, 71–72, 74
rain shadow, 1–2
ranchers
> after Wild Horse Annie Law, 153–54
attitude toward BLM, 204, 208
attitude toward wild horses, 61, 74, 80, 177–78
BLM lawsuits by, 177
on citizen advisory board, 180–81
destruction of wild horses by, 75–76, 79–81, 206, 214–16
early capture of horses by, 205–6
federal subsidies to, 218–20
and game of using public lands, 143
and holding system, 187, 188, 191, 194
manipulation of law on roundups by, 147–48
nuanced understanding of land among, 199
and ownership of wild animals, 158–59
position of wild horse advocates vs., 199
reactions to Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act, 156–57, 174
roundup strategies of, 79, 82, 147
sustainable land management by, 204
on wild horses as escaped livestock, 3
on wild horses as invasive, 33
range wars, 197–221
and early capture of horses by ranchers, 205–6
and federal subsidies to public land ranchers, 218–20
and government mismanagement of land, 214, 217–18
impact of Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act in, 206–14
importance of water in, 201–2, 209
and mistrust of government, 207, 215
and move to slaughter horses in holding system, 210–11
and natural die-off of uncontrolled horses, 212–13
and pre-protection-laws management of wild animals, 213–14
ranchers’ destruction of wild horses, 214–16
ranchers vs. wild horse advocates’ positions, 199
reintroduction of wild horses, 34–59
Americans’ records of, 55–57
from de Soto’s expedition, 40–41
factors in, 37–38
from Horse Nations’ horses, 54–55
and native tribes’ acquisition of horses, 42–54
from Oñate’s expeditions, 41–42
and Pueblo Revolt, 36–37, 45–46
and Spanish conquest/settlement, 36–50, 52–53
spread of mustangs through the West, 36–37
and spread of war, 37–40
Rin Tin Tin, 84
Robbins, Frank, 132–33
Robertson, Alden, 173–74
Rose, Ken, 3, 5–13, 19–21, 27, 29
Ross Dog and Cat Food, 82
roundups, xx–xxvi, xxviii–xxxii, 131–33, 141, 147–48
for canneries, 82, 83
collapse of program for, 190
cost of, 258
decline in, 193
and “fee waiver” adoptions, 178–80
fertility control as alternative to, 245–48
on horseback, 173–74
increased funding for, 177
Johnston’s release of corralled mustangs, 140
Johnston’s support for, 157–58, 167
Leigh’s documentation of, 166–70
money made from, 172
Nevada’s ban on, 142–44
number of horses killed in, 172
number of horses removed by, 174–75
opposition to, 162–63