The Ottoman Empire: a Historical Encyclopedia [2 Volumes]

by Kia, Mehrdad;

  The government, moreover, did not wish to evade its fiscal responsibility and the treasury would bear the burden of the additional expenses involved, for the establishment and maintenance of the new troops. At the same time the treasury guaranteed to honor all the extant Janissary pay tickets.

  The recruiting began, and a proclamation, issued in accordance with a fatwa, declared that any person who spoke or acted in opposition to the new law, would be severely punished. This statement was circulated to all quarters of Istanbul. Finally, last week, uniforms and weapons were issued to the new recruits and their drills were held.

  Nevertheless, the Janissaries, deaf to the call of religion and to the reiterated councils of the ulema, broke into revolt Thursday evening, the 9th of Zilkade. First, they attacked the resident of the Janissary agha [commander], then that of the grand vizier. They also sacked and fired on other houses. They committed all sorts of sacrilegious crimes and infamous horrors, and even went so far as to cut with knives pages of the Koran which fell into their hands.

  They shouted, “We don’t want any drill,” and, in spite of the holy sanctions, the proclamation, their sworn allegiance, and the sacred fetvas, they turned the weapons given them by the state against the government of the Muslim people and broke out in rebellion against their legitimate sultan.

  As this behavior was beyond the bounds of religion and decency, the grand vizir, mufti, vizirs, ulema, vijals, other high officials, and a host of faithful servants of the sultan who were incensed against the Janissaries, assembled at the imperial palace. They held a meeting there and received the glorious Banner of the Sultan of the Prophets and proceeded to hoist it in the Sultan Ahmed mosque where they all foregathered. From there they dispatched criers to all the quarters to inform the loyal Muslim people to rally to the defense of their faith and the Prophet’s Standard. In response, the faithful Muslims, risking their heads and lives, hastened eagerly to the rendezvous.

  In spite of the general anger they had aroused against themselves by their notorious deeds contrary to religion and the Ottoman state, the Janissaries persisted in their rebellion. Entrenched in the square which was the center of their plots, they resisted the sultan and the law. They dared to start a civil war in which many faithful Muslims were to perish. The sacred law has abandoned them to public retribution. Their barracks have been burned and the hand of Allah has thrown them before the sword of justice where they found their just desserts.

  A group of the rebels had died fighting, but their accomplices and those who began the rebellion were also to share their fate. Careful search was made for all of these by means of their names and descriptions, and many were seized. Some, already convicted of participation in the rebellion, have been punished. The others cannot escape the punishment they richly deserve.

  Thus, after so many insurrections and calamities instigated by the Janissaries, it is clear that their corps, far from fulfilling the object of its establishment, is, today, nothing more than a useless and insubordinate body which has become the asylum of the spirit of unrest and sedition in which the number of evil men have outgrown the number of good ones. The Janissary name and insignia have become synonyms for disorder and rebellion. Even infidels have managed to infiltrate themselves. Among those who have just been executed were found some Janissaries who bore, tattooed on their arm along with the insignia of the 75th mess, the cross of the ghiaurs [Christians]. This simply proves that infidel traitors parading in the disguise of Muslims have for a long time been using the Janissary corps to further their own nefarious ends by spreading false rumors. Their officers and former aghas have not kept a careful check on new recruits so that they remained ignorant of the undesirable elements in their midst who fomented disorder and trouble. It is an irrefutable truth that, even if one should wish to preserve the Janissary corps in the future, there is no practicable means which might be adopted to correct these abuses which would succeed.

  Therefore, the mufti, the grand vizier, all the great officials and ulema and all the zealous supporters of the state, assembled together in the Sultan Ahmed Mosque beneath the sacred Banner of the Prophet, taking cognizance of the aforementioned facts, have, in consequence, today unanimously agreed and decided that, in accordance with sacred law and for the preservation of the state, the ensign and name of the Janissaries shall be abolished. The Janissary corps is hereby annulled and in its place there is to be organized a trained body of troops bearing the name “Triumphant Soldiers of Muhammad.” These new troops will be useful to Islam and the state and capable of giving an answer to the enemy in gazi and jihad warfare.

  It is further resolved that the supreme command of these “Triumphant Soldiers of Muhammad” is conferred upon my daring vizier, the present governor of the provinces of Brusa and Kojaeli and the commander of the Rumeli [European] shore of the strait of the Black Sea, Huseyin Pasha. He will establish himself in the residence of the [Janissary] agha, which henceforth is to be called the residence of the Serasker Pasha [Commander-in-Chief of the Army]. The barracks and orderly rooms which will shortly be built are to house the new troops. Moreover, the titles of Janissary agha, Katar agha, and Bölök agha, and all titles and ranks of the Janissary corps are likewise hereby abolished.

  The present Janissary commander, Mehmed [Jelaleddin, who had refused an offer to command the new troops] is hereby granted the rank of one of my grand equerries and chief gatekeeper; the lieutenant general, Hassan, is promoted to the rank of Mirmiran [District Commander] and attached to the staff of the Serasker Pasha [that is, the above-mentioned Hüseyin]. The other general officers, the Zagharji Bashi, Seksonju Bashi, and Sekban Bashi are hereby appointed chief gatekeepers, while the other loyal company commanders are granted the rank of equerry of the sultan. Each will also receive, in addition, grants in order of rank. The former senior officers will retain their military fiefs which are transformed into Ziamet fiefs and will remain in the sultan’s services. Furthermore, the owners of Janissary pay tickets will, as heretofore, receive the exact amount due to them for as long as they live, by presenting these tickets at the appointed time and place. It is my imperial desire that no one should suffer any loss of difficulty on this account.

  Hence, let all the congregation of Muslim people, and the small and great officials of Islam and the ulema, and members of other military formations, and all the common folk be as one body. Let them look upon each other as brethren in faith. Let there be no differences and contrariness between you. Let the great ones among you look with a merciful and compassionate eye upon the little ones, and let the minor ones, moreover, in every instance be obedient and submissive to their superiors. And may you all strive together towards the ultimate goal to exalt the blessed word of Allah, the preservation and exposition of the religion and holy law of the Lord of the Prophets. And Allah grant that your union, established and persevering for this noble aim of beneficent reform may continue and endure for ages and ages to come. And let no one allow himself to utter any word or do any deed in opposition to the general desire and welfare. If he should do so he will at once, by the grace of Allah, be struck on the neck by the sword of the holy law.

  Such is the decision of the general council. Steps to put into execution these resolutions were immediately begun and my imperial commands have been sent to all my royal provinces in Rumeli and Anatolia. They are addressed to you, my viziers and generals and commanders and judges and magistrates and administrative representatives and all my aforementioned officials, you, who are to abolish the Janissary name and everything associated with it such as the rank of master of the barriers and master of the cranes and the Janissary officers and commanders in the provinces, and the Janissary unit messes all their insignia are to be completely wiped out.

  You, chief judge of Istanbul, who will assemble at your tribunal and in your presence the imams of all the quarters of Istanbul. You will communicate this firman to them and give them copies which they are to read in the mosques. The imams are to inform the faithful
Muslims of these matters and are to explain to them the precious advantages they embody. They are to tell them that it is the duty of true believers to thank the state for its beneficent intentions on this occasion, and that they are to live quietly and contentedly in the shadow of the power of the sultan. They must have no other thought but to beseech Allah to preserve their gracious ruler. You, yourself make certain that the imams fulfill this duty with care, and continue to display your zeal and care to encourage to observation of the decrees of our holy law.

  Source: Translation from the Turkish in Howard A. Reed, “The Destruction of the Janissaries in 1826: How Sultan Mahmud II Abolished the Corps” (PhD diss., Princeton University, 1951), 242–249. Princeton University Doctoral Dissertations: 1877–2010 (mostly 1950–2010), Princeton University Archives, Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, Princeton University Library.

  12. NOBLE RESCRIPT OF GÜLHANE (1839)

  The Hatt-i Şerif-i Gülhane (The Noble Rescript of the Rose Garden) was an 1839 proclamation by Ottoman sultan Abdülmecid (Abdülmejid) that launched the Tanzimat period of reforms and reorganization. On November 3, 1839, the new Ottoman sultan, Abdülmecid, ordered his ministers and dignitaries as well as representatives of foreign powers to gather in the rose garden of the Topkapi Palace, where his foreign minister, Mustafa Reşid Pasha (Mustafa Reshid Pasha), read a decree that came to be known as Hatt-i Şerif-i Gülhane.

  Written under pressure from European powers, the imperial edict signaled the beginning of a period of governmental reforms that is known in history as Tanzimat (Reorganization). The document guaranteed the subjects of the sultan security of life, honor, and property. It also promised a regular system for assessing and levying taxes as well as a just system of conscription and military service. The decree committed the central government to a number of essential reforms such as establishing a new penal code, eradicating bribery, and creating a regular and just tax system that would eliminate inequities and special privileges, such as tax farming. Thus, the imperial decree demonstrated a new commitment by the sultan and his advisers to the rule of law, the equality and fair treatment of all Ottoman subjects regardless of their religion and ethnicity, and the establishment of a new justice system that protected their life and property against arbitrary attacks and confiscation. The period of Tanzimat witnessed a significant expansion in the power of the Ottoman central government, which used the principles of rule of law and the introduction of an efficient administration to impose its authority over provincial power centers, in particular the powerful local notables.

  All the world knows that in the first days of the Ottoman monarchy, the glorious precepts of the Koran and the laws of the empire were always honored.

  The empire in consequence increased in strength and greatness, and all its subjects, without exception, had risen in the highest degree to ease and prosperity. In the last one hundred and fifty years a succession of accidents and diverse causes have arisen which have brought about a disregard for the sacred code of laws, and the regulations flowing therefrom, and the former strength and prosperity have changed into weakness and poverty; an empire in fact loses all its stability so soon as it ceases to observes its laws.

  These considerations are ever present to our mind, and ever since the day of our advent to the throne the thought of the public wealth, of the improvement of the state of the provinces, and of relief to the [subject] peoples, has not ceased to engage it. If, therefore, the geographical position of the Ottoman provinces, the fertility of the soil, the aptitude and intelligence of the inhabitants, are considered, the conviction will remain that by striving to find efficacious means, the result, which by the help of God we hope to attain, can be obtained within a few years. Full of confidence, therefore, in the help of the Most High, and certain of the support of our Prophet, we deem it right to seek by new institutions to give to the provinces composing the Ottoman Empire the benefit of a good administration.

  These institutions must be principally carried out under three heads, which are:

  1.The guarantees insuring to our subjects perfect security for life, honor, and fortune.

  2.A regular system of assessing and levying taxes.

  3.An equally regular system for the levy of troops and the duration of their service.

  And, in fact, are not life and honor the most precious gifts to mankind? What man, however much his character may be against violence, can prevent himself from having recourse to it, and thereby injure the government and the country, if his life and honor are endangered? If, on the contrary, he enjoys in that respect perfect security, he will not depart from the ways of loyalty and all his actions will contribute to the good of the government and of his brothers.

  If there is an absence of security as to one’s fortune, everyone remains insensible to the voice of the Prince and the country; no one interests himself in the progress of public good, absorbed as he is in his own troubles. If, on the contrary, the citizen keeps possession in all confidence of all his goods, then, full of ardor in his affairs, which he seeks to enlarge in order to increase his comforts, he feels daily growing and doubling in his heart not only his love for the Prince and country, but also his devotion to his native land.

  These feelings become in him the source of the most praiseworthy actions.

  As to the regular and fixed assessment of the taxes, it is very important that it be regulated; for the state which is forced to incur many expenses for the defense of its territory cannot obtain the money necessary for its armies and other services except by means of contributions levied on its subjects. Although, thanks be to God, our empire has for some time past been delivered from the scourge of monopolies, falsely considered in times of war as a source of revenue, a fatal custom still exists, although it can only have disastrous consequences; it is that of venal concessions, known under the name of “Iltizam”.

  Under that name the civil and financial administration of a locality is delivered over to the passions of a single man; that is to say, sometimes to the iron grasp of the most violent and avaricious passions, for if the contractor is not a good man, he will only look to his own advantage.

  It is therefore necessary that henceforth each member of Ottoman society should be taxed for a quota of a fixed tax according to his fortune and means, and that it should be impossible that anything more could be exacted from him. It is also necessary that special laws should fix and limit the expenses of our land and sea forces.

  Although, as we have said, the defense of the country is an important matter, and that it is the duty of all the inhabitants to furnish soldiers for that object, it has become necessary to establish laws to regulate the contingent to be furnished by each locality according to the necessity of the time, and to reduce the term of military service to four or five years. For it is at the same time doing an injustice and giving a mortal blow to agriculture and to industry to take, without consideration to the respective population of the localities, in the one more, in the other less, men than they can furnish; it is also reducing the soldiers to despair and contributing to the depopulation of the country by keeping them all their lives in service.

  In short, without the several laws, the necessity for which has just been described, there can be neither strength, nor riches, nor happiness, nor tranquility for the empire; it must, on the contrary, look for them in the existence of these new laws.

  From henceforth, therefore, the cause of every accused person shall be publicly judged, as the divine law requires, after inquiry and examination, and so long as a regular judgment shall not have been pronounced, no one can secretly or publicly put another to death by poison or in any other manner.

  No one shall be allowed to attack the honor of any other person whatever.

  Each one shall possess his property of every kind, and shall dispose of it in all freedom, without let or hindrance from any person whatever; thus, for example, the innocent heirs of a criminal shall not be deprived of their legal rights, and the
property of the criminal shall not be confiscated. These imperial concessions shall extend to all our subjects, of whatever religion or sect they may be; they shall enjoy them without exception. We therefore grant perfect security to the inhabitants of our empire in their lives, their honor, and their fortunes, as they are secured to them by the sacred text of the law.

  As for the other points, as they must be settled with the assistance of enlightened opinions, our council of justice (increased by new members as shall be found necessary), to whom shall be joined, on certain days which we shall determine, our ministers and the notabilities of the empire, shall assemble in order to frame laws regulating the security of life and fortune and the assessment of the taxes. Each one in those assemblies shall freely express his ideas and give his advice.

  The laws regulating the military service shall be discussed by a military council holding its sittings at the palace of Seraskia. As soon as a law shall be passed, in order to be forever valid, it shall be presented to us; we shall give it our approval, which we will write with our imperial sign-manual.

  As the object of these institutions is solely to revivify religion, government, the nation, and the empire, we engage not to do anything which is contrary thereto.