The Last Mughal

Home > Other > The Last Mughal > Page 57
The Last Mughal Page 57

by William Dalrymple


  Archer, Mildred and Toby Falk, India Revealed: The Art and Adventures of James and William Fraser 1801–35, London, 1989

  Ashraf, K. M., ‘Muslim Revivalists and the Revolt of 1857’, in P. C. Joshi, Rebellion 1857: A Symposium, New Delhi, 1957

  Bailey, Gauvin Alexander, ‘Architectural Relics of the Catholic Missionary Era in Mughal India’, in Rosemary Crill, Susan Stronge and Andrew Topsfield (eds.), Arts of Mughal India: Studies in Honour of Robert Skelton, Ahmedabad, 2004

  Bailey, T. G., History of Urdu Literature, London, 1932

  Banerji S. K., ‘Bahadur Shah of Delhi and the Admin Ct of the Mutineers’, in Proceedings of the Indian Historical Records Commission, vol 24, February 1948

  Bayly, C. A., Imperial Meridian: The British Empire and the World 1780–1830, London, 1989

  Bayly, C. A., Empire & Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social

  Communication in India 1780–1870, Cambridge, 1996

  Beach, Milo Cleveland, and Ebba Koch, King of the World: The Padshahnama, An Imperial Mughal Manuscript from the Royal Library, Windsor Castle, London, 1997

  Bhadra, Gautam, ‘Four Rebels of 1857’, in Subaltern Studies, IV (ed. R. Guha), New Delhi, 1985

  Buckler F. W., ‘The Political Theory of the Indian Mutiny’, in Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, IV, series 5, 1922, 71–100 (also reprinted in Legitimacy and Symbols: The South Asian Writings of F. W. Buckler, ed. M. N. Pearson, Michigan, 1985)

  Burke, S. M. and Salim al-Din Quraishi, Bahadur Shah: Last Mogul Emperor of India, Lahore, 1995

  Burton, David, The Raj at Table: A Culinary History of the British in India, London, 1993

  Butler, Iris, The Elder Brother: The Marquess Wellesley 1760–1842., London, 1973 Cadell, Sir Patrick, ‘The Outbreak of the Indian Mutiny’, in Journal of the Society of Army Historical Research, vol. 33, 1955

  Chakravarty, Gautam, The Indian Mutiny and the British Imagination, Cambridge, 2005

  Collingham, Imperial Bodies: The Physical Experience of the Raj c.1800–1947, London, 2001

  Compton, Herbert (ed.), The European Military Adventurers of Hindustan, London, 1943

  Crill, Rosemary, Susan Stronge and Andrew Topsfield (eds.), Arts of Mughal India: Studies in Honour of Robert Skelton, Ahmedabad, 2004 Dalrymple, William, City of Djinns, London, 1993

  David, Saul, The Indian Mutiny 1857, London, 2002

  David Saul, Victoria’s Wars: The Rise of Empire, London, 2006

  Davies, Philip, Splendours of the Raj: British Architecture in India 1660–1947, London, 1985

  Ehlers, E. and Thomas Krafft, ‘The Imperial Islamic City: 19th Century Shahejahanbad’, in Environmental Design – Proceedings of the 7th International Convention of the Islamic Environmental Design Research Centre in Rome, July 1991

  Ferguson, Niall, Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World, London, 2003

  Fisher, Michael, Counterflows to Colonialism, New Delhi, 2005

  Fisher, Michael H., ‘An Initial Student of Delhi English College: Mohan Lal Kashmiri (1812–77)’, in Margrit Pernau, Delhi College (forthcoming), New Delhi, 2006

  Fisher, Michael H, ‘Becoming and Making Family in Hindustan’, in Indrani Chatterjee, Unfamiliar Relations, New Delhi, 2004

  Forrest, G. W., A History of the Indian Mutiny (3 vols), London, 1904

  Gilmour, David, The Ruling Caste: Imperial Lives in the Victorian Raj, London, 2005

  Grey, C, and H. L. O. Garrett, European Adventurers of Northern India 1785–1849, Lahore, 1929

  Guha, Ranajit, Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India, New Delhi, 1983

  Gupta, Narayani, Delhi between Two Empires 1803–1931, New Delhi, 1981

  Gupta, Narayani, ‘From Architecture to Archaeology: The “Monumentalising” of Delhi’s History in the Nineteenth Century’, in Jamal Malik (ed.), Perspectives of Mutual Encounters in South Asian History, 1760–1860, Leiden, 2000

  Habib, Irfan, ‘The Coming of 1857’, in Social Scientist, vol. 26, no. 1, January-April 1998

  Hardy, Peter, The Muslims of British India, Cambridge, 1972

  Hasan, Mehdi, ‘Bahadur Shah, his relations with the British and the Mutiny: An objective study’, in Islamic Culture, 33 (2), 1959

  Hawes, Christopher, Poor Relations: The Making of the Eurasian Community in British India 1773–1833, London, 1996

  Hewitt, James, Eyewitness to the Indian Mutiny, Reading, 1972

  Hibbert, Christopher, The Great Mutiny: India 1857, London, 1978

  Hilliker, J. F., ‘Charles Edward Treveleyan as an Educational Reformer’, in Canadian Journal of History, 9, 1974

  Hobhouse, Niall, Indian Painting for the British 1780–1880, London, 2001

  Hughes, Derrick, The Mutiny Chaplains, Salisbury, 1991

  Husain, Mahdi, Bahdur Shah II and the War of 1857 in Delhi with its Unforgettable Scenes, New Delhi, 1958

  Hutchinson, Lester, European Freebooters in Moghul India, London, 1964

  Ikram, S. M., Muslim Rule in India and Pakistan, Lahore, 1966

  Jalal, Ayesha, Self and Sovereignty: Individual and Community in South Asian Islam since 1850, New Delhi, 2001

  Kanda, K. C, Masterpieces of Urdu Ghazal, New Delhi, 1994

  Khan, Nadar Ali, A History of Urdu Journalism 1822–1857, New Delhi, 1991

  Lal, John, Begam Samru: Fading Portrait in a Gilded Frame, New Delhi, 1997 Lal, Krishan, ‘The Sack of Delhi 1857–8’, in Bengal Past and Present, July-December 1955

  Leach, Linda York, Mughal and other Paintings from the Chester Beatty Library, 2 vols, London, 1995

  Lee, Harold, Brothers in the Raj: The Lives of John and Henry Lawrence, Oxford, 2002

  Lelyveld, David, Aligarh’s First Generation: Muslim Solidarity in British India, Princeton, 1978

  Liddle, Swapna, ‘Mufti Sadruddin Azurda’, in Margrit Pernau, Delhi College (forthcoming), New Delhi, 2006

  Llewellyn-Jones, Rosie, A Fatal Friendship: The Nawabs, the British and the City of Lucknow, New Delhi, 1992

  Majumdar J. K., Rajah Rammohum Roy and the Last Moghals: A Selection of Official Records 1803–1859, Calcutta, 1939

  Majumdar, R. C, Penal Settlements in Andamans, New Delhi, 1975 Majumdar, R. C, The Sepoy Mutiny, Calcutta, 1957

  Marshall, P. J. (ed.), The British Discovery of Hinduism, Cambridge, 1970 Masud, Muhammad Khalid, ‘The World of Shah Abdul Aziz, 1746–1824’, in Jamal Malik (ed.), Perspectives of Mutual Encounters in South Asian History, 1760–1860, Leiden, 2000

  Metcalf, Barbara Daly, Islamic Revival in British India, 1860–1900, Princeton, 1982

  Mukherjee, Rudrangshu, ‘The Azimgarh Proclamation and some questions on the Revolt of 1857 in the North Western Provinces’, in Essays in Honour of S. C. Sarkar, Delhi, 1976

  Mukherjee, Rudrangshu, ‘“Satan Let Loose upon Earth”: The Kanpur massacres in India in the Revolt of 1857’, in Past and Present, 128

  Mukherjee, Rudrangshu, Avadh in Revolt 1857–8: A Study of Popular Resistance, New Delhi, 1984

  Mukherjee, Rudrangshu, Mangal Pandey: Brave Martyr or Accidental Hero?, New Delhi, 2005

  Mukherji, Anisha Shekhar, The Red Fort of Shahjahanabad, New Delhi, 2003

  Mukhia, Harbans, ‘The Celebration of Failure as Dissent in Urdu Ghazals’, in Modern Asian Studies, 33, (4), 1999

  Naim, C. M., Urdu Texts and Contexts: The Collected Essays of C. M. Naim, New Delhi, 2004

  Narang, Gopi Chand, ‘Ghalib and the Rebellion of 1857’, in Narang, Urdu Language and Literature: Critical Perspectives, New Delhi, 1991

  Nizami, Farhan, ‘Islamization and Social Adjustment: The Muslim Religious Elite in British North India 1803–57’, in Ninth European Conference on Modern South Asian Studies, 9–12 July 1986, South Asian Institute of Heidelberg University

  Panikkar, K. N., ‘The Appointment of Abu Zafar as Heir Apparent’, in Journal of Indian History, 44, (2), 1966

  Parel, A., ‘A Letter from Bahadur Shah to Queen Victoria’, in Journal of Indian History, 47, (2), 1969


  Perkins, Roger, The Kashmir Gate: Lieutenant Home and the Delhi VCs, Chippenham, 1983

  Peers, Douglas M., ‘Imperial Vices: Sex, Drink and Health of British Troops’, in David Killingray and David Omissi (eds.), Guardians of the Empire, Manchester, 1999

  Pernau, Margrit, “Middle Class and Secularisation: The Muslims of Delhi in the 19th century’, in Imtiaz Ahmad and Helmut Reifeld (ed.), Middle Class Values in India and Western Europe., New Delhi, 2003

  Margrit Pernau, “The Dihli Urdu Akbhar: Between Persian Akhbarat and English newspapers’, in Annual of Urdu Studies, vol. 8, 2003

  Pernau, Margrit, ‘Multiple Identities and Communities: Re-contextualizing Religion’, in Jamal Malik and Helmut Reifeld, Religious Pluralism in South Asia and Europe, New Delhi, 2005

  Powell, Avril Ann, Muslims and Missionaries in Pre-Mutiny India, London, 1993

  Pritchett, Frances W. P, Nets of Awareness: Urdu Poetry and its Critics, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1994

  Quraishi, Salim al-Din, Cry for Freedom: Proclamations of Muslim Revolutionaries of 1857, Lahore, 1997

  Qureshi, I. H., ‘A Year in Pre-Mutiny Delhi’, in Islamic Culture, 17, 1943, part 3

  Ray, Rajat Kanta, The Felt Community: Commonality and Mentality before the Emergence of Indian Nationalism, New Delhi, 2003

  Ray, Rajat Kanta, ‘Race, Religion and Realm’, in M. Hasan and N. Gupta, India’s Colonial Encounter, New Delhi, 1993

  Rizvi S. A. A. and M. L. Bhargava, Freedom Struggle in Uttar Pradesh, vols 1 and 2, Lucknow, 1957–60

  Robinson, Francis, ‘Religious Change and the Self in Muslim South Asia since 1800’, in South Asia, vol. 22, 199

  Robinson, Francis, ‘Technology and Religious Change: Islam and the Impact of Print’, in Modern Asian Studies, 27, (1), 1993

  Roy, Dr Kaushik, ‘Company Bahadur against the Pandies’, in Jadavpur University Journal of History, vols 19–20, 2001

  Roy, Tapti, The Politics of a Popular Uprising: Bundelkhand in 1857, Oxford, 1994)

  Russell, Ralph (ed.), Ghalib: The Poet and his Age, London, 1975

  Russell, Ralph, Hidden in the Lute: An Anthology of Two Centuries of Urdu Literature, New Delhi, 1995

  Russell, Ralph and Khurshid Islam, Ghalib: Life and Letters, Oxford, 1969

  Sachdeva, K. L., ‘Delhi Diary of 1828’, in Proceedings of the Indian Historical Records Commission, vol. 30, 1954, part 2 Sadiq, Muhammad, A History of Urdu Literature, Karachi, 1964

  Sajunlal, K, ‘Sadiq ul-Akhbar of Delhi’, in Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Seventeenth Session, 1954

  Saksena, Ram Babu, European & Indo-European Poets of Urdu & Persian, Lucknow, 1941

  Saroop, Narindar, A Squire of Hindoostan, New Delhi, 1983 Schimmel, Annemarie, Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, Leiden-Koln, 1980

  Sen, S. N., ‘A new account of the siege of Delhi’, in Bengal Past and Present, 1957

  Sen, Surendranath, 1857, New Delhi, 1957

  Shackleton, Robert, ‘A soldier of Delhi’, in Harper’s magazine, October 1909 Shreeve, Nicholas, Dark Legacy, Arundel, 1996

  Shreeve, Nicholas (ed.), From Nawab to Nabob: The Diary of David Ochterlony Dyce Sombre, Arundel, 2000

  Shreeve, Nicholas, The Indian Heir, Arundel, 2001

  Sikand, Yoginder, Bastions of the Believers: Madrasas and Islamic Education in India, New Delhi, 2005

  Singer, Noel F., Old Rangoon, Gartmore, 1995

  Smith, Vincent, Oxford History of India, Oxford, 1923

  Spear, Percival, The Twilight of the Moghuls, Cambridge, 1951

  Spear, Percival, The Nabobs, Cambridge, 1963

  Spear, T. G. P., “The Mogul Family and the Court in 19th Century Delhi’, in Journal of Indian History, vol. 20, 1941

  Stokes, Eric, The Peasant and the Raj – Studies in Agrarian Society and Peasant Rebellion in Colonial India, London, 1978

  Taylor, P. J. O., A Companion to ‘The Indian Mutiny’ of 1857, Delhi, 1996

  Taylor, P. J. O., What Really Happened During the Mutiny: A Day-by-Day Account of the Major Events of 1857–1859 in India, Delhi, 1997

  Thompson, Edward, The Life of Charles Lord Metcalfe, London, 1937

  Topsfield, Andrew (ed.), In the Realm of Gods and Kings: Arts of India, New York, 2004

  Varma, Pavan K., Ghalib: The Man, the Times, New Delhi, 1989

  Varma, Pavan K., Mansions at Dusk: The Havelis of Old Delhi, New Delhi, 1992

  Ward, Andrew, Our Bones are Scattered: The Cawnpore Massacres and the Indian Mutiny of 1857, London, 1996

  Welch, Stuart Cary, Room for Wonder: Indian Painting during the British Period 1760–1880, New York, 1978

  Wilson, A. N., The Victorians, London, 2002

  Yadav, K. C, The Revolt of 1857 in Haryana, Delhi, 1977

  Footnotes

  * A sepoy is an Indian infantry private, in this case in the employ of the British East India Company. The word derives from sipahi, the Persian for soldier.

  * A muhatta is a distinct quarter or neighbourhood of a Mughal city – i.e. a group of residential lanes usually entered through a single gate which would be locked at night.

  * Shahjahanabad is the walled city now known as Old Delhi, built by the fifth Mughal Emperor, Shah Jahan (1592–1666), and opened as his new capital in 1648.

  † ‘Tilangas’ is apparently a reference to Telingana, in modern Andhra Pradesh, where the British originally recruited many of their sepoys during the Carnatic Wars of the eighteenth century. In Delhi the name seems to have stuck as an appellation for British-trained troops, although the British had long since replaced Telingana with Avadh as their principal recruitment field, so that in 1857 most sepoys would have come from modern Uttar Pradesh and parts of Bihar. ‘Purbias’, which in Delhi was used alternately with Tilangas, simply means Easterners. Both words carry the same connotations of foreignness, implying ‘these outsiders from the East’.

  * As Muslims are supposed to wash after having sex, the complaint is as much about ritual impurity as it is about hygiene.

  * Hindustan refers to the region of northern India encompassing the modern Indian states of Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh and some parts of Madhya Pradesh and Bihar, where Hindustani is spoken, and the area often referred to in modern Indian papers as the ‘Cow Belt’. While the term ‘India’ is relatively rarely used in nineteenth-century Urdu sources, there is a strong consciousness of the existence of Hindustan as a unit, with Delhi at its political centre. This was the area that was most seriously convulsed in 1857.

  * A howdah is the seat carried on an elephant’s back; often in this period howdahs were covered with a canopy.

  * Nawab originally meant a viceroy or governor, but later it was simply used as a grand title, usually for men, but occasionally – as in this case – for women. (Duke or duchess would be the nearest English equivalent, which in its original Latin form Dux also meant governor.)

  † The Mahi Maraatib, a golden or pair of fish raised on a long golden standard, was the most important of the Mughal’s dynastic insignia, but despite Zahir’s grand-sounding official title of Daroga of the Mahi Maraatib, his daily duties appear to have been relatively humble and he was in effect the Emperor’s page or ADC.

  * Shah Abdul Aziz also judged that it was legal in the Sharia for Muslims to take employment from Christians. On the other hand, Shah Abdul Aziz had little faith in the intellectual abilities of the British and looked down on them for their abject failure to grasp the most elementary subtleties of Muslim theology. Every race has its own particular aptitude, he wrote. ‘The Hindus have a special inclination for mathematics. The Franks have a special aptitude for industry and technology. But their minds, with few exceptions, cannot grasp the finer points of logic, theology and philosophy.’ Quoted in Khalid Masud, ‘The World of Shah Abdul Aziz, 1746-1824’, p. 304, in Jamal Malik (ed.), Perspectives of Mutual Encounters in South Asian History, 1760-1860, Leiden, 2000.

  * The future Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan, Muslim reformer and founder of Aligarh Muslim University.

>   † Albeit from Deccani parents.

  * Palam being less than 10 miles from the Red Fort, near the modern international airport. There is some dispute over which of the two Mughal Shah Alams the verse refers to, or indeed whether it actually refers to a pre-Mughal Shah Alam of the Sayyid dynasty.

  * The Resident initially acted as the Governor General’s ambassador to the Mughal court, but as British power grew, and that of the Mughals diminished, he came more and more to assume the role of the Governor of Delhi and its surroundings.

  * As had the Marathas before them, and indeed the Rohillas too.

  * So much so that the poet Abd ur-Rahman Hudhud wrote a celebrated parody:

  The circle of the axis of heaven,

  Is not at the lip of the water

  The fingernail of the arc of the rainbow

  Does not resemble a plectrum.

  Another poet agreed:

  Kalaam-i Mir samjhey aur zubaan-i Mirja samjhey

  Magar inka kaha yeh khud hi samjhein ya khuda samjhey.

  We follow the poetry of Mir, and the language of Mirja,

  But of him [Ghalib] – only he can follow his verses, or maybe God alone can.

  †An ustad means the master of an art. In this context an ustad was a recognised master-poet who accepted his own shagirds or pupils.

  *Seton, incidentally, thought the charge very unlikely, writing to Calcutta that the young Abu Zafar was a ‘very respectable character’ but not being his favourite was ‘much neglected’ by the King. Instead Akbar Shah lavished his attention on Mirza Jahangir, of whom, said Seton, he was ‘devotedly fond’. Mirza Jahangir, irritated by Seton’s support of Zafar, eventually took a potshot at the Resident from the battlements of the Red Fort, and succeeded in knocking off his hat. He was exiled to Allahabad in 1809, where he eventually died ‘from an excess of Hoffman’s Cherry Brandy’ in 1821, aged only thirty-one. Akbar Shah’s dismissive treatment of Zafar in his youth no doubt added to Zafar’s perennial tendency towards paranoia and insecurity. At one point, for example, when his father sent Rajah Ram Mohan Roy to England as his envoy to try to increase his stipend, and to protest at the way the Company was consistently whittling down his status, Zafar assumed that the mission was aimed at disinheriting him and wrote angrily to both the Governor General and to Roy. The latter replied, calmly refuting Zafar’s accusations, and adding a little acidly ‘that those who do not comprehend their own good or evil cannot comprehend the good or evil of others’. There are good accounts of Zafar’s troubled youth and accession to the throne in Percival Spear’s Twilight of the Moghals (Cambridge, 1951), p. 41ff; also in the first chapter of Aslam’s Parvez’s Urdu biography of Zafar. See also the far less comprehensive English language volume by S. M. Burke and Salim al-Din Quraishi, Bahadur Shah: Last Mogul Emperor of India, Lahore, 1995, pp. 43–50.

 

‹ Prev