The Spy Who Changed History
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Hoover, Herbert, 77–8, 87, 320
Hoover, J. Edgar, 154, 304
Hunsaker, Jerome C., 125–7, 128
If War Comes Tomorrow (Yefim Dzigan film, 1939), 291, 312–13
Ilf and Petrov (Russian satirists), 90, 91, 92
Ilya Muromets (Sikorsky’s heavy bomber), 21–2
Ilyushin, Sergey, 2†, 152, 263*, 410–11
Imperial Russian Air Force, 21
industrial espionage see scientific and technological (S&T) espionage
Ipatiev, Vladimir, 155, 163
Ipatov, Pyotr, 32, 34
Italy, 164, 273, 300, 301
Ivan the Terrible, 56*
Ivanov, Peter, 73
Jagiello, Polish King, 13
Japan: aircraft, 241, 247, 270, 327; ambitions in Soviet Far East, 182, 206–9, 219–20, 222–3, 271, 272, 273, 291, 318; annexation of Manchuria (1931), 190–1; defeat at Khalkhyn Gol (1939), 318–19; Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs, 5*, 379, 399, 411; intelligence-gathering in USA, 300; Pearl Harbor attack (1941), 327, 344, 347; and Philippines, 266; poison gas manufacture, 168–9; proxy war with USSR (1930s), 272; and Russian Civil War, 271–2; and Soviet espionage, 185, 190–3, 207–9, 224; US attacks on cities (1944-5), 377; WW2 war crimes, 209*
jet aircraft, 2–3, 316, 325, 364–5, 376, 405–6, 407, 409, 410–11
Jews, Russian, 18–19, 20, 138, 143–4, 174–5, 318
Jordan, George Racey, 366
Journal of Applied Mathematics and Technical Physics, 9–10
Junkers (German manufacturer), 60
Kaganovich, Lazar, 144
Kahn, Albert, 53
Kalmyk steppe, 35
Kalugin, General Oleg, 63
Kapitsa, Pyotr, 68, 381
Kaplan, Irving, 195
Karakhan, Lev, 208–9, 209*
Kármán, Theodore von, 246–7
Kasahara, Yukio, 207, 208
Kazan, 341, 375, 416
Kennan, George, 221, 268
Kent, Tyler, 222
Keyes, Professor Frederick G., 165–6
Khalepsky, Innokenty, 109
Khalkhyn Gol, battles of (1939), 318–19
Khariton, Yuliy, 381, 399
Kharkov, 11–19, 120; political radicalism in, 17, 18, 19, 23, 24; tank factory, 334–5
Kiev, 15
Kirov, Sergey, 203
Klein, Arthur Louis ‘Maj’, 246
Klivans, Gertrude, 20, 69–74, 70, 75–6, 79–83, 84, 93, 100–1, 187–8, 189
Konikow, Antoinette, 256
Korean War, 411
Kornilov, General, 32–3
Korolyov, Sergey, 316, 325
Koval, Georgi, 20†, 192, 396
Kozhedub, Ivan, 2†
Kramarenko, Ivan, 346
Krivitsky, Walter, 296
Kronstadt naval base, 43
kulaks, 294
Kummerow, Hans-Heinrich (FILTER), 205–6
Kuna, Martin, 210–11
Kurchatov, Igor, 381, 382, 389–90, 399, 401
Kursk, Battle of (1943), 374
Kutepov, General, 62*
Kvasnikov, Leonid (ANTON), 387, 388, 392
La Guardia, Fiorello, 320
Ladd Army Airfield, Fairbanks, 369, 370
Lake Khasan, Battle of (1938), 318–19
Lamphere, Robert, 308
Langley Field, 246, 247, 326
Lavochkin, Semyon, 2†
League of Nations, 273–4
Lebedev-Kumach, Vasily, 312–13
Left Socialist-Revolutionaries (Left SR), 159–60
Lehigh University, Pennsylvania, 100
LeMay, Curtis, 377
Lend Lease, 283, 339–40, 341–2, 347–8, 351–4, 355–7, 358, 363, 369–70
Lenin, Vladimir, 6, 26–7, 39, 40, 47–8, 50–1, 65, 67
Leningrad, 319, 333, 335, 352
Levanevsky, Sigismund, 27, 277, 292–3, 372
Levene, Phoebus A., 211
Lewis, Winford Lee, 167
Lewisite (poison gas), 167–8
Life magazine, 360
Lindbergh, Charles, 127, 261, 268
Lisunov, Boris Pavlovich, 271
literacy, 65–6, 67, 116
literature, 93
Liverpool, 389
Locke, Emanuel, 253
Lockheed, 297, 339, 347, 362
Lore, Ludwig, 106–7, 157, 211
Lowell, Francis Cabot, 95–6
Lyublino chemical warfare research centre, 170
Maclean, Donald, 7*
Magnitogorsk metallurgical plant, 53
Malisoff, William (TALENT), 215, 216–18, 251
Manhattan Project, 202, 211, 373–4, 378–9, 381, 391; and Quebec Conference (August 1943), 391, 394, 395; and Roosevelt, 379, 381, 391, 416; Soviet intelligence on, 6, 20†, 93, 378, 379, 392–3, 394–6, 397–8, 399, 400–1; ‘Trinity’ test (Nevada desert, July 1945), 399
‘March of the Soviet Aviators’, 1–2
Margolis, Vladimir, 247, 295
Markin, Valentin, 211, 225
Markov (aka Mironov), Vasily (KURT), 304, 308, 309, 396–7, 400
Marshall, George, 280
Marxism, 18
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT): Aeronautics becomes distinct department (1939), 128; alumni of aeronautics programme, 124–5, 128†; architecture and facilities/resources, 113, 115–16, 117–18, 124, 126, 149, 245; boarding houses for Soviet students, 119–20; and Boston Trotskyists, 256; Communist Party cell at, 121–2, 150, 156, 158; Compton’s reforms, 117; Course 16, aeronautics, 115, 122–4, 126; Daniel Guggenheim Laboratory, 124; decadence of student life, 118–19; engine design and operation, 127–8, 212; and factory placements, 98; FBI investigation (1950s), 5–6, 402–3; and global intelligence-gathering model, 365; and Great Depression (1930s), 93, 118, 129–30, 149–50; history of, 117–18, 124–7; Hunsaker at, 125–7, 128; main library, 125, 147; ‘Mikhail Ivanov’ at, 155–9, 163, 165–6, 169–71, 172; new Soviet recruits at (from 1938), 303–5, 306–11, 328–9; nuclear physics at, 306, 373–4; and Purchasing Commission spies, 363–4; Shumovsky as graduate student, 244–6, 248, 254; Shumovsky as student, 2, 6–9, 64, 112–20, 123, 124–8, 129–35, 136–45, 146–53, 211–12, 235–6; Shumovsky obtains bachelor’s degree (June 1934), 244; Sloan Laboratory, 127; Soviet students’ arrival at, 112–15, 114, 117–18; teaching methods, 116; tradition of hazing, 133; TsAGI replicates Master’s course in aviation, 122–4; as welcoming to Soviet students, 93, 99, 100
McMeremin, William, 282
McNutt, Russell (FOGEL), 396
measurement systems, 243, 267, 268, 415
Medkov, Yefim, 121–2, 150, 156, 157
Meitner, Lise, 380
Mendeleev Institute (now University) of Chemical Technology, 203
Merkulov, Vsevolod, 385
Messerschmitt plant, 323
Messing, Stanislav, 61
MiG design team (Mikoyan and Gurevich), 152, 263*
Mikoyan, Artem, 2†
Mikulin, Alexander, 321
Minnesota, University of, 383–4
Minster, Leon (CHARLIE), 211–12
Mission to Moscow (Warner Brothers film), 360
Mitchell, Billy, 274
Mitchell Field, 300
Miyagi, Yotoku, 191
Mola, Emilio, 293–4
Mond Laboratory, Royal Society, 68*
Morros, Boris, 318
Moscow, 15, 38; Aeronautics Institute (MAI), 115, 151–2; Institute of Physics and Technology (MFTI), 9; Napoleon’s capture of, 57†; Physical Technical University, 423; redevelopment in (1930s), 311; and Second World War, 337, 340–1, 344, 348; US embassy on Lenin Hills, 221–2, 223
Mozhaysky, Alexander, 12*
Muraviev, Herbert (ATOM), 381–2
Mussolini, Benito, 164
Nagorno-Karabakh, 27–9
Nakajima (Japanese aircraft company), 270
Naples University, Italy, 68, 162
Napoleon, 57
National Advisory Committee for Aeronauti
cs (NACA), 126, 127, 246, 247, 357, 362
National Security Agency, US (NSA), 245, 253, 401*
Nazi–Soviet Pact (1939), 316–17, 321–5, 331, 349
New York City: 1920s prosperity, 77; Ray Bennett in Brooklyn, 174, 175–6; Central Park, 13*; as centre of Soviet espionage, 147–8, 348; Empire State Building, 104–5, 238; Grand Central Station, 111–12; and Great Depression, 77, 78, 79, 83–4, 103–4, 105; Lincoln Hotel on Eighth Avenue, 101, 103, 238; migrants from Russian Empire, 20; Ovakimian in (1933), 201, 202, 209–12, 214–19, 224–5; and Second World War, 347, 348; skyline, 104–5, 111, 238; World’s Fair (1939-40), 329
New York University, 210–11, 214–15
Nicholas II, Tsar, 17, 18, 21, 23–4, 25, 26–7
Nier, Alfred, 383–4
Nieuwland, Father Julius Arthur, 167
NKAP (People’s Commissariat for Aviation Industry), 313–16, 408, 410, 414
NKVD (also CHEKA/KGB), 71*, 155, 218, 221, 222, 256, 285, 286, 303–6, 310, 399, 402; agents as under an obligation, 140; and Bennett, 177, 180, 190, 193, 195, 196, 198; and Cherniavsky, 170, 171, 172; counter-intelligence operations, 62*, 99; and Great Terror (1937), 294–5; and Haight, 145, 146; INO (foreign intelligence arm), 60, 61–3, 204; introduces linear organisational structure, 348*; and Japan, 207–9; and Lore’s fake material, 106–7, 157, 211; Lubyanka headquarters, 61, 203–4, 376; New York office, 136–7, 148, 170, 297–8, 357, 360–1; and Ovakimian, 203–4; and S&T operations, 60, 61, 62–5; Sergey Shpigelglas’ ‘special operations’, 99*; and Trotsky, 257–8
Norden bomb sights, 145–6, 300, 339
The North Star (RKO film, 1943), 360
Northrop factory, El Secundo, 235, 249–53
Novikov, Fyodor (LAUREL), 304, 358, 364
Novosibirsk, 375
nuclear weapons: ENORMOZ operation, 202, 329, 350*, 374, 383, 384–90, 391–6, 397–9, 400–1; ‘Fat Man’ plutonium bomb, 5*, 395, 400; ‘First Lightning’ detonation (1949), 400, 401; Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs, 5*, 379, 399, 411; Los Alamos, 8*, 20†, 374, 391, 395, 399; Oak Ridge Atomic facility, 20†, 211, 396; race to create atomic bomb, 379–81, 382–90, 391–6, 397–9, 400–1, 406–7, 416; Soviet, 5, 7, 201, 274, 390, 398–9, 400–1; Soviet atomic research, 381–2, 389, 398–9, 400–1; Soviets excluded from ‘nuclear club’, 379, 391, 394; US monopoly, 398, 401, 415–16; see also Manhattan Project
Odessa, 333, 348, 392*
Odner (Ray Bennett contact), 196–7
oil industry, 25, 27, 28, 29–30, 39, 40, 352
opera, 93
Operation Ghost Stories, 97*
Oppenheimer, J. Robert, 374
Orlov, Alexander, 296
Osipova, Zinaida V., 350*
Osoaviakhim (gliding club organisation), 264
Ottoman Empire, 25, 28
Ovadis, Joseph, 179, 185, 186, 192–3, 199
Ovakimian, Gaik (GENNADY), 210; agent group leader innovation, 215–17; arrested by FBI (May 1941), 329–30, 348; and atomic secrets, 381–2, 383–4, 385–90, 391–5, 406–7; at Bauman Institute, 203; biographical details, 202–3; chemistry from DuPont, 225; as global head of S&T in Moscow, 330, 341, 342, 358–9, 385–90, 406–7; and Great Terror (1937), 298; includes UK in spy network, 406–7; as legend of Soviet espionage, 201–2, 407*; network of contacts and agents in US, 214–19, 224–5; and new Soviet recruits at MIT (1938), 305, 306, 308–10, 328–9; in New York, 201, 202, 209–12, 214–19, 224–5, 308, 328–30; recruited by Artuzov, 203–4; return to academia (end of 1945), 400, 407*; sends Yershov to London (1943), 365, 387, 391–2; as talented chemist, 210–11, 407*; trains Shumovsky in landing new agents, 251; and US jet developments, 407; as XY line officer in Berlin, 204–6
Pacifist League, US, 266
Paris Peace Conference (1919), 28
penicillin, 374
perfume industry, 217–18
Perl, William, 414
Pershing, General, 166
Persian Corridor, 371
Petroff, Professor (KEEL), 364
Petrozavodsk, Karelia, 175
Philby, Kim, 7*
Philippines, 266
Piskunov, Sergey, 346–7
Podolsky, Boris (QUANTUM), 393
Poland, 13, 43, 56, 60, 319
Polikarpov, Nikolay, 322–3, 324
political radicalism: during First World War, 23, 24, 26–7; in Kharkov, 17, 18, 19, 23, 24; Russian emigrants in USA, 20–1, 156, 174–7; US radical left in 1930s, 85, 86–8, 195–6
polygraph technology, 153
Post, Wiley, 145
Potsdam Conference (July 1945), 379
Pratt & Whitney, 235, 269
Price, Thomas, 168
Primakov, General Vitaly, 69–71
propellers, 240, 414
Protzenko, Ivan, 122–3
Purdue University, USA, 74, 100
Quebec Conference (August 1943), 391, 394, 395
Rabinovich, Grigory (BEAM), 214–15
radar, 364, 371, 376, 410, 414
Raina (Shevchenko), Andrey (ARSENY), 362, 364, 365, 367, 397, 410
Rapallo, Treaty of, 59*
Rasputin, 18
Red Army: advance into German territory (1944-5), 121, 407, 408; and air war on Eastern Front, 354; in Armenia (1920), 203; buys M-1931 tanks, 109–11; Chemical Warfare Division, 161–3, 206; Cherniavsky in, 160–1; and civil war, 35–9, 40, 41, 161; civil war partisans, 31, 32, 33, 33–5; command structure, 37, 43*; commissars’ role, 37; ‘deep penetration’ strategy, 108; defeat of Chinese in Manchuria (1929), 182; delegation to West (1930), 109–10; Eastern Front victories (1943), 355, 374–5, 376; on eve of Barbarossa, 331–2; illiteracy eradicated in, 67; Military Chemical Academy, 206; military discipline introduced (1919), 36–7; oath of loyalty, 11*, 35–6; rapid expansion (from 1937), 313, 331; resistance to Nazi advance, 333, 337, 374–5; seizes Baku’s oil wealth, 39, 40; Trotsky’s ‘blocking troops’, 37; winter war with Finland, 319–20
Reed, John, 66
Reilly, Sidney (‘Ace of Spies’), 62
Republic aircraft company, 241, 409, 410
revolutionary period (1917-19): Russian revolutions (1917), 26–7, 176, 257–8; in Transcaucasia, 27–30, 40
Riaskin (American Trotskyist), 157–9
Rickenbacker, Eddie, 412
Rockefeller Foundation, 68–9
Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, New York, 211
rocketry and missiles, 2–3, 112*, 212, 373, 376, 405–6, 407–8, 409, 410–11; JB-2 ‘Loon’ (reverse-engineered V1), 409–10; RP-318 rocket plane, 316
Rockne, Knute, 269–70
Rogers, William Barton, 118
Rokhinson, Vladimir, 170, 171
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 87–8, 213–14, 219, 220, 222, 281, 285, 320, 351; and carpet/saturation bombing, 377; and Manhattan Project, 379, 381, 391, 416; meeting with Gromov (September 1941), 338–9; and Pearl Harbor attack, 347; tour of recently liberated Crimea, 375
Roosevelt, Henry L., 237
Rosenberg, Ethel and Julius, 8*, 217, 374, 393, 395*, 395–6, 401
Rostarchuk, Alexander ‘Rosty’, 122, 363–4, 365
Rowan, Richard Wilmer, Spy and Counterspy, 58, 59, 406
Royal Air Force, 376
Russian Civil War (1917-22), 31–6, 161; and Caucasus region, 39, 40, 41; exiled White Guard organisations, 99, 296; Japanese intervention, 271–2; large-scale battles (1919), 37–9; Western support for Whites, 38–9; ‘White Terror’, 38
Russian Empire: 1905 Revolution, 17–18, 19; anti-Semitism in, 18–19, 20; and aviation, 11–13, 21–2; and Caucasus, 25, 27–30; emigration to USA from, 19–21, 66, 156, 174–6; February revolution (1917), 26–7, 176; and First World War, 21–7, 57, 166; inequality and social division, 14, 15–17, 18, 19; invasions of, 56–7; Lena Goldfields Massacre (1912), 19; nationalities in, 18–19, 25, 27–30; October revolution (1917), 27, 66–7, 176, 257–8; Okhranka (Tsar’s secret police), 17, 18, 215; rapid industrialisation, 15, 16–17; Russification policy, 18–19; and Shumovsky’s fam
ily, 13–15; Tsarist fear of education, 65–6; violent responses to protest, 16, 17, 18, 19; war with Sweden (1610-17), 57*; WW1 banning of vodka sales, 23–4
Rutherford, Ernest, 68, 381
Sanguszko, Roman Damian (Polish prince), 13–14
Sarant, Alfred, 414
Scanlon, Martin F., 265–6
Schmidt, Otto, 277
Scientific American, the Advocate of Industry and Enterprise (magazine), 47
scientific and technological (S&T) espionage: agent-end customer communications, 149; air bridge from USA to USSR, 365, 366, 369–72; AMTORG’s role, 56, 105, 106, 110, 330; annual report on US aviation, 228; and Artuzov, 203–4, 206; becomes an INO objective (1925), 60, 62, 204; Dzerzhinsky’s role, 52; ENORMOZ operation, 202, 329, 350*, 374, 383, 384–90, 391–6, 397–9, 400–1; FBI search for FRED, 5–6, 402–3; formal separation from political intelligence, 348*; improving agent situation (1944), 366–7; intelligence on nuclear projects (pre-ENORMOZ), 381–4; ‘legal’ residencies in USA, 211, 212, 217, 218, 219, 305; longevity of Russian operation, 96–7; Lowell in Britain (1810-12), 95–6; Malisoff’s complaints over plagiarism, 217; Moscow Centre re-organises in USA (1943), 363; NACA research as aviation target, 126, 357; new Soviet recruits at MIT (1938), 303–5, 306–11, 328–9; and nuclear weapons, 5†, 20*, 20†, 373–4, 378, 379, 381–90, 391–6, 397–9, 400–1, 406–7; open-source information, 105–6; and Ovakimian, 202, 203–6, 209–12, 214–19, 224–5; post-1941 difficulties in USA, 348–50, 357, 358–9, 360–1; post-war aviation espionage, 409–10; purchase of US patents, 365–6; security tightened in USA, 298–301, 339, 348–50, 359, 360–1; Shumovsky sets benchmark for, 146, 153; and Shumovsky’s return to USA (late-1941), 342, 347, 357–8; Soviet engineers sent abroad (1920s), 51; Soviet specialists at European universities, 68, 381; Stalin turns to (1929-31 period), 55, 58; and Stalin’s fear of Japan, 220; targeting of American universities, 6–7, 97–8, 99–100, 307–8, 350*; US aviation industry as key target, 60, 264–6, 267–8; US ignores information on, 266, 267–8; USA as role model and target, 52, 60, 206; winding down of (end of 1945), 400; WW2 Careless Talk campaign in USA, 359; see also Soviet students in USA
Scotland, 343, 344, 345
seaplanes, 135, 212
Second World War: air war on Eastern Front, 354–5; Allied sea convoys, 343–4, 345–6, 348; and biological weapons, 169; carpet or saturation bombing, 377–8, 378; and chemical weapons, 169; fall of France (1940), 332; fall of Smolensk (September 1941), 337; German offensive into southern Russia (1942), 352; and Lend Lease, 283, 339–40, 341–2, 347–8, 351–4, 355–7, 358, 363, 369–70; and Moscow, 337, 340–1, 344, 348; Operation Barbarossa (June 1941), 331–7; Pearl Harbor attack (1941), 327, 344, 347; Red Orchestra espionage ring, 206; S&T espionage vital to Soviet survival, 9; Soviet counter-offensive (December 1941), 344, 348; Stalingrad, 352–3, 355, 374; tide turns on Eastern Front (1943), 355, 374–5, 376; and Trashutin, 121; US Neutrality Act, 338