Eye on the Struggle
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Halberstam, David. The Fifties. New York: Villard Books, 1993.
Hansberry, Lorraine. A Raisin in the Sun: Thirtieth Anniversary Edition. New York: Samuel French, Inc., 1958.
Hills, Ruth Edmonds, ed. The Black Women Oral History Project. Westport, CT: Meckler, 1991.
Hoffman, Joyce. On Their Own: Women Journalists and the American Experience in Vietnam. New York: Da Capo, 2008.
Houck, Davis W., and Matthew A. Grindy. Emmett Till and the Mississippi Press. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2008.
Irons, Peter. Jim Crow’s Children: The Broken Promise of the Brown Decision. New York: Penguin Books, 2004.
Joseph, Peniel E. Stokely: A Life. New York: Basic Books, 2014.
Kersten, Andrew Edmund. A. Philip Randolph: A Life in the Vanguard. Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield, 2007.
Kluger, Richard. Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America’s Struggle for Equality. New York: Knopf, 1976.
Knightley, Phillip. The First Casualty: From the Crimea to Vietnam; The War Correspondent as Hero, Propagandist, and Myth Maker. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976.
LaBrie, Henry G. Perspectives of the Black Press. Kennebunkport, ME: Mercer House Press, 1974.
Margolick, David. Elizabeth and Hazel: Two Women of Little Rock. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011.
Massey, Douglas S., and Nancy A. Denton. American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.
McWirter, Cameron. Red Summer: The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America. New York: Henry Holt, 2011.
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Newkirk, Pamela. Within the Veil: Black Journalists, White Media. New York University Press, 2000.
Newton, Jim. Justice for All: Earl Warren and the Nation He Made. New York: Riverhead, 2006.
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Pacyga, Dominic A. Chicago: A Biography. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009.
Pfeffer, Paula F. A. Philip Randolph, Pioneer of the Civil Rights Movement. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1990.
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Reed, Christopher Robert. The Depression Comes to the South Side: Protest and Politics in the Black Metropolis. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011.
Ridlon, Florence. A Black Physician’s Struggle for Civil Rights: Edward C. Mazique, MD. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2005.
Ritchie, Donald A. Reporting from Washington: The History of the Washington Press Corps. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Robert, Gene, and Hank Klibanoff. The Race Beat: The Press, the Civil Rights Struggle, and the Awakening of a Nation. New York: Knopf, 2006.
Rowan, Carl. Breaking Barriers: A Memoir. New York: Harper Perennial, 1992.
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Rowley, Hazel. Richard Wright: The Life and Times. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001.
Spear, Alan H. Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890–1920. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967.
Streitmatter, Rodger, Raising Her Voice: African-American Women Journalists Who Changed History. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1994.
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Taylor, Cynthia. A. Philip Randolph: The Religious Journey of an African American Labor Leader. New York: New York University Press, 2006.
Taylor, Quintard. In Search of the Racial Frontier: African Americans in the American West, 1528–1990. New York: Norton, 1991.
Tuttle, William, Jr. Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919. New York: Athenaeum, 1977.
Tye, Larry. Rising from the Rails: Pullman Porters and the Making of the Black Middle Class. New York: Henry Holt, 2004.
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Wilkerson, Isabel. The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration. New York: Vintage Books, 2010.
Wilford, Hugh. The Mighty Wurlitzer: How the CIA Played America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008.
Williams, Juan. Thurgood Marshall: American Revolutionary. New York: Times Books, 1998.
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DISSERTATIONS
Finley, Keith M. Southern Opposition to Civil Rights in the United States Senate: A Tactical and Ideological Analysis, 1938–1965. PhD diss., Louisiana State University, 2003.
Layfield, Denise Sue. Chasing the Dream: A Collection and Synthesis of Oral Histories of Eight Journalists Who Covered the Civil Rights Movement. Master’s thesis, University of Georgia, 1986.
Lucander, David. It Is a New Kind of Militancy: March on Washington Movement, 1941–1946. PhD diss., University of Massachusetts Amherst, 2010.
Sherrod, Pamela Jetaun. Ethel L. Payne: Coverage of Civil Rights as a Washington Correspondent, 1954–1958. Master’s thesis, Michigan State University, 1979.
Zasimczuk, Ivan A. Maxwell M. Rabb: A Hidden Hand of the Eisenhower Administration in Civil Rights and Race Relations. Master’s thesis, University of California, Davis, 1997.
A NOTE ON SOURCES
To conserve space, I eschewed listing article titles and used abbreviations for frequently cited sources and a numeric dating system. A guide to abbreviations appears below. So for instance,
Ethel L. Payne to Louis E. Martin, January 28, 1953, Ethel L. Payne Papers Box 5, Folder 2, Manuscript Room of the Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
appears here as:
ELP to LEM, 1/28/1953, ELPLOC, B5F2
The reference citation is linked to the text at the point at which I begin using the source. So quotations in subsequent paragraphs stem from the same source unless otherwise noted.
Several of the collections of Ethel Payne’s papers remain unprocessed, so the box numbers used here may change over time. However, the endnotes contain enough information to permit researchers to find the item at a later date. I am also always glad to communicate with other writers and researchers, should you have any questions.
ARCHIVAL COLLECTIONS OR REPOSITORIES
ACWP Rev. Addie and Rev. Claude Wyatt Papers, Chicago Public Library Vivian G. Harsh Research Collection of Afro-American History and Literature
ALPACM Ethel Payne Papers, Anacostia Community Museum, Washington, DC
APP The American Presidency Project (www.presidency.ncsb.edu) at the University of California, Santa Barbara
APRPLOC A. Philip Randolph Papers, Manuscript Room Library of Congress, Washington, DC
A-SFP Abbott-Sengstacke Family Papers, 1847–1997, Vivian G. Harsh Research Collection of Afro-American History and Literature, Chicago Public Library, Chicago, IL
DDEPL Dwight David Eisenhower Presidential Library, Abilene, KS
ELPCHM Ethel L. Payne Papers, Chicago History Museum, Chicago, IL
ELPJAJ Ethel L. Payne Papers privately held by Dr. James A
. Johnson
ELPLOC Ethel L. Payne Papers, Manuscript Room, Library of Congress, Washington, DC
ELPMSRC Ethel L. Payne Papers, Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard University, Washington, DC
ELPSCRBC Ethel L. Payne Papers, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York, NY
GMMA George Meany Memorial Archives, National Labor College, Silver Spring, MD
GRFPL Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library, Ann Arbor, MI
HSTPL Harry S. Truman Presidential Library, Independence, MO
ISA Illinois State Archives, Springfield, IL
IRC Files of the Interracial Commission, Illinois State Archives, Springfield, IL
JAJP James A. Johnson collection of Ethel L. Payne papers in private possession
LBJPL LBJ Presidential Library, Austin, TX
LMLOC Louis Martin Papers, Manuscript Room of the Library of Congress, Washington, DC
MBPP Margaret Bayne Price Papers, Michigan Historical Collections, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
NAACP National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Collection, Manuscript Room of the Library of Congress, Washington, DC
NARA Nelson A. Rockefeller Personal Files, Washington, DC, Rockefeller Archives, Sleepy Hollow, NY
PMWP Philip M. Weightman Papers, Tamiment Library, Wagner Archives, Elmer Holmes Bobst Library, New York University, New York, NY
RMNPL Richard M. Nixon Presidential Library, Yorba Linda, CA
SSP Susan Sontag Papers, Library Special Collections, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA
WEBDBP W. E. B. Du Bois Papers, Special Collections and University Archives, University of Massachusetts Amherst Libraries, Amherst, MA
FREQUENTLY CITED PERSONAL NAMES
APR A. Philip Randolph
ARJ Avis Ruth Johnson (sister)
BP Bessie Payne (mother)
ELP Ethel L. Payne
EPW Enoch P. Waters
JHS John H. Sengstacke
LEM Louis E. Martin
MMR Maxwell M. Rabb
RMN Richard M. Nixon
TG Thelma Gray (sister)
FREQUENTLY CITED NEWSPAPERS
AfAm Afro-American
AmNe Amsterdam News
AtWo Atlanta Daily World
ChDe Chicago Defender (weekly)
ChMe Chicago Metro News
ChTr Chicago Tribune
DaDe Chicago Defender (daily)
LAT Los Angeles Times
MiTi Miami Times
NYT New York Times
PiCo Pittsburgh Courier
WaIn Washington Informer
WaPo Washington Post
WaSt Washington Evening Star
NOTES
The pagination of this electronic edition does not match the edition from which it was created. To locate a specific entry, please use your e-book reader’s search tools.
1Resting on the table: NYT, 7/3/1964, 1.
3Despite a storied history: Enoch P. Waters, American Diary: A Personal History of the Black Press (Chicago: Path Press, 1987), 141.
3Until the civil rights movement: ChDe, 10/28/1911, 1.
4But the Chicago Defender: Vernon Jarrett (The HistoryMakers A2000.028), interview by Julieanna Richardson, 6/27/2000, The HistoryMakers Digital Archive. Session 1, tape 5, story 3.
4His speech concluded: Accounts varyingly report that Johnson used seventy-five or seventy-nine pens.
9A train ticket: The arrivals of both William Payne and Bessie Austin are dated using family records. For more on the Great Migration, see Isabel Wilkerson, The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration (New York: Vintage Books, 2010).
9Well used to hard labor: Bessie Payne, “The Story of the Life of George Washington Austin, 1847–1935” and marriage date found on family tree. City directories confirm the family’s account of William’s employment as a cooper. See also DaDe, 4/23/1909, 3.
10At first the Paynes: The first houses they lived in were on Loomis Boulevard and Ada Street. ELP noted the location of her birth in an outline she prepared for an autobiography she contemplated writing, ELPLC B19F4. I was, however, unable to locate a birth certificate in the Cook County records; ChDe, 7/13/1912, 4. The house was on Eberhart Avenue. ELP wrote on the back of her aunt’s photo that she had been the one to name her.
10William had left: Larry Tye, Rising from the Rails: Pullman Porters and the Making of the Black Middle Class (New York: Henry Holt, 2004), 68, 75–79. William Payne is listed in several newspaper accounts as working on the New York Central Line to Toledo, OH. See, for instance, ChDe, 4/7/1917, 3.
11Earning a Pullman salary and tips: In 1910, only 6.4 percent of African Americans were in owner-occupied housing in Chicago, according to Quintard Taylor, In Search of the Racial Frontier: African Americans in the American West, 1528–1990 (New York: Norton, 1991), 233; see also W. J. Collins and R. A. Margo, “Race and Home Ownership: A Century-Long View,” Explorations in Economic History 37 (2001), 68–92; Thelma E. Gray, “The Subject is 6210 Throop Street,” ELPLC B8F1.
11Although strict with: ELP, “Wiliam and Bessie Payne—Who They Were,” copy in author’s files.
11The family’s love: PiCo, 5/10/1975, 5; Thelma Gray repeated the family story at a 1982 testimonial dinner.
12Bessie kept the home: Thelma Gray, “Mom”; ELP, “Shades in Black and White,” ELPMSRC B1657, Educational Papers. ELP tells of castor oil and gingersnaps in a speech to the Association for the Study of Negro American Life and History, 10/21/1973, ELPSCRBC B9.
12Bessie’s family had: ELPOH 3; ELP to Bessie Davenport, 7/29/1983, ELPLOC B5F1. In recounting this story to her old friend, Davenport, Payne added, “Fortunately, her [Bessie’s] special bond with the Lord carried me through and made me a better citizen and contributing member of society.”
12Bessie’s parents: ELP, “Laughing with Life,” ELPLOC B40F1.
12Ethel, her older sisters: ChDe, 5/25/1918, 7.
13Ethel’s sister Alma: ELP, “William and Bessie Payne: Who They Were,” and Thelma E. Gray, “Alma Josephine”; ELPOH, 7.
13In particular, Ethel: ELPOH, 7; Dunbar’s poem later provided the poet Maya Angelou with the title for her autobiography.
14Ethel and her siblings: Mayme Austin Mitcham, “Early Events in the Life of Mrs. Josephine Taylor Austin.”
14Bessie’s father, George: Bessie Payne, “The Story of the Life of George Washington Austin, 1947–1935.”
14But tall tales: ELP, “Laughing with Life,” ELPLOC B40F1.
15Ethel began her: Thelma E. Gray, “The Subject is 6210 Throop Street,” ELPLC B8F1. At Copernicus, twelve of the seventy-five members of the graduating eighth grade in 1913 were African American. “Copernicus is noted as being one of the best grade schools in the city,” reported a black newspaper. “Its discipline is good, it has a high class of teachers, and is therefore more liberal in its general views.” ChDe, 6/28/1913, 2.
15Accompanying Ethel to: Thelma E. Gray, “Lemuel Payne.”
16Each day’s walk: Chicago Commission on Race Relations, The Negro in Chicago: A Study of Race Relations and a Race Riot (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1922), 439–440.
16At school and at home: ELP autobiographical outline, ELPLOC B19F4; ELPOH, 4–5.
17On Sunday August 27, 1919: ELP, “Shades in Black and White,” ELPMSRC Box 1657, Educational Papers; Denise Sue Layfield, Chasing the Dream: A Collection and Synthesis of Oral Histories of Eight Journalists Who Covered the Civil Rights Movement (master’s thesis, University of Georgia, 1986), 128–129; Cameron McWirter, Red Summer: The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America (New York: Henry Holt, 2011), 127–148.
18By nightfall a race war: William M. Tuttle, Jr. Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919 (New York: Athenaeum, 1977), 32–33.
18South Side became: Tuttle, Race Riot, 50.
18The Payne family huddled: ChTr, 7/31/1919. 1.
19All but a few: C
hTr, 8/1/1919, 2.
19Finally, on the third night: ELP, “Shades in Black and White,” ELPMSRC Box 1657, Educational Papers; Layfield, Chasing the Dream, 128–129.
20When calm did come: 1920 and 1930 U.S. Census figures for Throop Street. For instance, African Americans had made up 15 percent of the residents in the Washington Park Community, right in the middle of South Side, before the riots. Within a decade they made up 92 percent of its population. See Dominic A. Pacyga, Chicago: A Biography (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009), 255; ELPOH, 1. The neighborhood was bounded by 63rd Street on the south, 59th on the north, Loomis Boulevard on the west, and Aberdeen Street on the east; Alan H. Spear, Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890–1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967), 12.
20Excluded from Chicago: The phrase is credited to historian Earl Lewis; Timuel Black interviewed in DuSable to Obama: Chicago’s Black Metropolis DVD, produced by Barbara E. Allen and Daniel Andries (Windows to the World Communications, 2010).
21An African American newspaper: ELPOH, 50.
21Taking a page: ChDe, 3/30/1930, A1; Typical headlines included LOY LYNCHED BY MOB FOR STEALING COW THAT RETURNED LATER, ChDe, 1/30/1915, and TWENTY-THOUSAND SOUTHERNERS BURN BOY AT STAKE, 5/19/1916.
22Within a decade: James R. Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 79, 87. Most reports of the Defender’s circulation were unreliable. The number used here is derived from a number of sources.
22The Defender was: Mr. Ward, “Bound for the Promised Land,” ChDe, 11/11/1916, 12.
23As Ethal Paine neared: Robert Lindblom Technical High School Building: Preliminary Summary of Information submitted to the Commission on Chicago Landmarks, December 2008, 17.
23Lindblom’s facilities: ELPOH, 7.
24It was not much easier: Negro in Chicago, 242, 441; Gerald E. Sullivan, ed. The Story of Englewood, 1835–1923 (1924), 69; The Negro in Chicago, 108; ELPOH, 7. A census of the photographs in the Lindblom yearbooks from 1926 to 1930 reveal no African American employees and only three to four black students per grade.