Asian Traditions of Meditation

by Halvor Eifring

  To understand the nature and significance of Tantric meditative technologies of a more technical variety, it would be wise to gain an insight of the cognitive structures of the world view and theological principles of the Śākta Tantras, and the nature of the symbolic tools for meditation they use.

  The Nature of the Object of Meditation

  The presiding deity of the meditation is the supreme goddess Tripurasundarī. The cult of the goddess Tripurasundarī occupies a very significant place in Kashmir and in South Indian Tantrism. Widely known also as Lalitā, Kameśvarī, Ṣoḍaśī, Rājarājesvarī, and Śrīvidyā (after her esoteric fifteen-syllabled mantra), Tripurasundarī is one of the most sublime personifications of the divine feminine. The philosophical tradition of Tripurasundarī is traced to the Trika school of the Kashmirian Agamas. The sophisticated ontology of the Śaivādvaita-vāda of Kashmir is absorbed in the feminine theology of the Tripurā cult. According to the theology of Śākta Tantra, during worship of Tripurasundarī, the deity may manifest in three forms, along with her retinue. Her concrete anthropomorphic icon (sthūlarūpa) is described in her contemplative verse (dhyāna śloka), which gives a vivid description of her physical characteristics. More subtle than her concrete physical form is her subtle (sukṣma) sonic body consisting of her fifteen-syllabled mantra. Even subtler than her sound body is her supreme (parā) manifestation known through cognition of her illuminating nature,1 as mirrored in her aniconic symbol, the Śrīcakra/Śrīyantra.

  Yantras and maṇḍalas are widely used for Tāntric worship and contemplation. They are a prerequisite of worship and meditation. All Hindu Tantric deities have been assigned their specific yantras. As stated in the Kulārṇava Tantra, “As body to the soul, oil to the lamp, a yantra is to the deity.”2 The yantras and the mantras are means of steadying the mind. The yantras for meditation and ritual worship form a very distinctive group of sacred symbols. The Hindu Tāntric yantra is a simple linear diagram of concentric configurations conceived so as to act as a vehicle of concentration. The most important part of the yantra is the center (bindu), the point of origin of the linear forces that are gathered around it. An important feature of the Śrīcakra symbolism is the manner in which it is to be understood by the devotee, as a fully manifested emblem of creation and dissolution. In technical terminology the dienergic process is called the order of emanation (sṛṣṭikrama) and the order of involution (saṃhārakrama).3

  The theology of Śrīvidyā holds that the universe is composed of two opposing but complementary principles.4 At the apex of creation, these principles are named Parama-Śiva and Vimarśa-Śakti. Śiva is the male principle understood as pure transcendent consciousness, while Śakti, the supreme goddess, is the female principle, Śiva’s dynamic creative power. In their descent for manifestation, Śakti unfolds in three phases. In the first phase, the two principles are harnessed in a unitive embrace. This phase is symbolized by the bindu in the Śrīyantra. In the phenomenal context, the first evolute is Śiva as the principle of subjective consciousness (aham), and Śakti as the principle of objective awareness (idam). At this stage the Śakti principle assumes her three intrinsic powers: the energy of will (icchā śakti), energy of knowledge (jñāna śakti) and the energy of action (kriyā śakti). This is a state of pure consciousness, of nondifferentiation and unity represented by the inverted triangle in the center of the yantra. In the next phase, owing to the veiling power of māyā (illusion), there is separation of the subject and object through negation of their unlimited powers, which get contracted, as it is were, and give rise to the finite world, composed of twenty-six categories of material existence.

  The Śrīyantra in figures 4.1 and 4.2 displays the splendor and manifestation of the whole creation expressed in its visual metaphysics. It is read as a chart of cosmic evolution, stage after stage, from the incipient unity of male and female principles to the differentiated categories of creation. The reality of the first unitive phase of creation, which is the seat of the presiding deity, is reflected in the bindu, which rests in the center of the Śrīyantra. The subsequent circuits composed through the interlacing of the nine triangles symbolize the manifold world of pure and impure categories. The yantra is composed of two sets of triangles: the four upward-pointing triangles are identified with the Śiva principle, whereas the five downward-pointing inverted triangles represent the Śakti principle. The two sets of interlacing triangles create forty-three smaller ones, to show the imperishable unity of Śiva and Śakti. The diagram so formed is enclosed by two rings of lotus petals and a square. United, the shapes comprise all of the thirty-six categories of creation (see figure 4.1). The yantra is presided over by the retinue of the goddess Tripurasundarī who are positioned in a graded order on various parts of the cakra. Although this is not immediately apparent, the diagram is divided into nine rings or enclosures. In the course of meditation, the diagram is understood in the reverse order of involution, moving inward circuit after circuit. The nine enclosures are referred to as veils (āvaraṇa) that hide the luminous deity in the center. The yantra functions as a revelatory symbol of cosmic truths and theological principles, and is indeed a yāntric form of the goddess Tripurasundarī.

  Each deity or emblem on the yantra is related to the devotee’s mental traits, which are equated with psycho-cosmic categories of creation. The exoteric rituals pertaining to yantra worship consist of invocations with offerings to the retinue deities who are positioned on different circuits of the yantra. Sometimes these deities are depicted through their corresponding mantras and the seed syllables included in the mantras. In contemplative worship, the deities are internalized in deep meditation as forces of one’s states of awareness. Beyond its theological aspect, the yantra is seen as a diagram that reflects the inner states of human consciousness and as an all-inclusive symbol of the psycho-cosmos. It is, therefore, looked upon as one of the most effective tools for spiritual transformation, projection, concentration, and integration with the envisioned cosmos.

  Figure 4.1. The Tattva diagram represents the thirty-six categories of creation. Image courtesy of Madhu Khanna.

  Dhyāna and Antaryāgaa: Contemplative Worship of Śrīcakra

  The Śākta Tantric ritual has some distinctive features.5 The ritual is centered on the application of some foundational principles, namely, a well-defined metaphysical ontology (jñāna) and a specialized ritual performance (karman) that takes place with the aid of mantra, yantra, mudrā (finger poses), and interiorized yogic disciplines, in addition to the correct prescriptive knowledge of philosophical principles. For rituals to gain efficacy, the worshipper must inculcate an active experiential awareness of unity and identity with the object of adoration through the process of mentation known as bhāvanā. It is bhāvanā that forms the basis of yogic meditations.

  Figure 4.2. The Śrīyantra symbolically mirrors the categories of the Tattva diagram. Image courtesy of Madhu Khanna.

  There are several gradations of practice in which the oneness with the divine is experienced. The highest form of meditation is when the self-luminous light of consciousness is expressed spontaneously. The middle level is one of concentration (dhāraṇā) and meditation (dhyāna); the lowest form is of laudation and external worship of a sacred image of a deity.6 The most common form of dhyāna is the one that forms a part of the worship of the goddess. It is a combination of concentrated meditation on the physical form of the goddess, as described in her contemplative verse (dhyāna-śloka). No external worship can begin without re-creating a mental image of the deity. The descriptions capture minute details of the figure of the goddess, from head to toe, including her color and posture, with meticulous details of her facial features, adornments, jewels, and ornaments. Tripurasundarī’s most popular image describes her as one who is “bathing the universe in her rosy effulgence.” She holds in her four hands a noose, a goad, a bow, and five flowery arrows. Such simple dhyāna practice may be extended into an elaborate internal worship of the goddess with five, eleve
n, or sixty-four kinds of offerings. In this form of inner visualization, the goddess is mentally invoked in the heart lotus and is gratified by all of the offerings or ingredients such as water for washing her feet, perfumed oils for bathing, garments, unguents, a garland and adornments to deck her from head to toe. The texts often keep reminding the devotee that the true form of dhyāna consists in experiencing the identity of essence (sāmrasyatā) through immersion in the state of beatitude exuded by the energy of consciousness.7

  The perfection of meditation is to transcend outer form. Thus the dhyāna is unswerving awareness without any object of contemplation for its support. Contemplation of the figure of a deity constitutes the gross form of meditation; the highest level of dhyāna is formless and consists in the awareness of the nondifferention of one’s self from the absolute principle. This is attained through constant mindfulness of the true nature of the self, which is none other than Śiva in union with Śakti.

  The traditions of meditation (dhyāna and antaryāga) must be viewed within the larger structure of Śrīvidyā rituals. At a generic level, all Hindu forms of ritual begin with a contemplative verse to the guru and the deity. In all forms of Tāntric worship, there is a well-defined structure. It begins with elaborate rites of purification, in which the adept purifies his gross body and re-creates a symbolic divine body (divyaśarira) through the rite of the purification of the elements (bhūtaśuddhi). Thereafter follow several acts of invocation and consecration. The worshiper performs the rite of infusing the deity’s energy into various parts of his body (nyāsa) to make himself eligible for worship. Then begins the outer contemplation, before inviting the goddess in the rite of invocation. The next phase is entirely devoted to the contemplative worship of the goddess. Antaryāga literary means “internal sacrifice.” This is a very special Tantric ritual. It is prescribed that all forms of exoteric ritual should be preceded by internal worship, because the efficacy of external worship lies in the worshiper’s capacity to re-create through inner meditative experience and internal visualization all of the acts of worship on the mental screen. The Śākta Tantras say that there cannot be any outer worship (bahiryāga) without accomplishing worship within, as it is the inner meditative experience shaped by our bhāvanā that is made explicit in the exoteric ritual. Thus antaryāga consists in contemplation on all of the outward acts of worship, from the invocation to the dismissal of the deity during worship symbolically performed in contemplative vision. After its performance, the devotee worships the yantra with external offerings and finally takes back the flaming radiance of the goddess into his heart in the rite of dismissal (visarjana). It can be seen that the boundaries between the external and the internal, though well defined, merge and mingle at various junctures of the ritual. The true worship of the Śrīcakra consists in the unity of the knower (jñātā), the act of worship (jñāna), and the object of worship (jñeya). The culmination of the ritual is reached with the total identification of the devotee with the goddess, her cakra/yantra, and her mantra, as they all are sparks of the same fire.

  The Dynamics of Śrīyantra Meditation according to the Bhāvanopaniṣad

  A devotee’s spiritual journey from the stage of material existence to ultimate enlightenment is mapped on the greatest of yantras, the Śrīyantra. We find the sequence of meditation set out in the learned and erudite commentary in one of Bhāskararāya’s greatest works, the Bhāvanopaniṣad Bhāṣyā,8 which is divided into two sections. The commentary expounds the view of the Kādi school of Śrīvidyā that holds that the exoteric rituals should be interiorized in symbolic internal meditations. The first part of the commentary describes the meta significance of internal worship. The second part, the Prayogavidhi, designated as the Mahāyaga Krama, illustrates the injunctions (vidhi) for ritual practice through internal meditation of the symbolic representations described in the earlier section. Its distinctive feature is that Bhāskararāya’s interpretation expounds the secret meaning (atirahasya) of the Śrīcakra by relating it to each part of the microcosm.

  The main concern of the Bhāvanopaniṣad Bhāṣyā is to establish a unity between the Śrīcakra and the yogic structures of the subtle body. An attempt is made to align and harmonize the macro cosmos reflected in the Śrīcakra symbolism with various aspects of the microcosm, thereby emphasizing a unity between the two.

  As is the convention, the text opens with a salutation to the preceptors, who are regarded as a fountainhead of the tradition. Thereafter, it outlines the structures of the physical, mental, vital, and psychological levels of the microcosm, equating these multiple levels to the deities who preside over the nine enclosures of the Śrīcakra. The Bhāṣyā lays great stress on the subtle nature of bhāvanā, contemplative meditation (after which the text is named). This form of Śrīvidyā internal worship (antar-yāga) takes precedence over the gross form of external worship (bahir-yāga). The internal worship is generally performed in two stages: first with the aid of external props such as the Śrīcakra, gestures, and recitations of mantra, which are then interiorized as manifestations of the light of consciousness. The internal worship is a form of contemplative immersion whereby the devotee’s consciousness transforms through visualization of identity of the devotee’s essence with that of the goddess. Such a transformation reflects the acme of the concept of bhāvanā. Bhāvanā, or an inwardly-directed contemplation, has emerged as a foundational concept in the Śrīvidyā school established by Bhāskararāya. It helped to sublimate the external forms of ritual to a highly subtle level of cognitive conscious worship, thereby refining the paraphernalia of external acts into a profound experience of unity of essence (sāmarasya) between the adorer and the adored.

  According to Bhaskararāya, abstract philosophical investigation about the visual metaphysics of Śrīcakra is part and parcel of liberative knowledge. This requires both rational reflection (sat-tarka), correct understanding of structures and symbolism of the Śrīcakra, the microcosm and the active participation in the ritual known as Śrīcakra-pūjā. The composite form of knowledge (jñāna) and ritual action (kriyā) leads the devotee to the state of uninterrupted nondual cognition. The mere outward form of ritual acts without this knowledge does not bear any efficacy.

  The meditation as described in the text is based on the theory of the affinity between the microcosm and the macrocosm. According to the text, the universe, the macrocosm, and the microcosm are integrally related. There are fundamental affinities between the ontological categories of creation, the subtle (or psychic) body scheme of the adept, and the yantra,9 the object of adoration. In this form of meditation, the external yantra is transformed into an internal yantra. Energizing psycho-cosmic affinities, the adept can begin to make the ascent, or journey of return. This is demonstrated in the opening lines of the text in which the nine exits of the body (i.e, two ears, two nostrils, two eyes, the two organs of elimination and procreation, and the mouth) are identified with the nine preceptors, and the subtle nerves. Hence it is important to view such yantras not merely as symbols of the cosmos but as symbols of the integrated psycho-cosmos, as reflecting a human-universe continuum.

  In most, if not all, yantras for meditation, the progressive stages from material or gross levels are symbolized by square enclosures with four gates opening out to the four directions, while the highest stage of perfection is identified with the bindu in the center. Closed concentric circuits (maṇḍalas) of various geometric shapes correspond to the intermediary planes of the consciousness. Each enclosure is circuit or a way station, a plateau (dhāmani), leading toward the sanctum sanctorum.

  The number of circuits or enclosures in each yantra is prescribed by tradition and codified in Tantric texts. It can vary considerably. The Śrīyantra has nine concentric configurations, known as cakras, literally “wheels.” Cakra is a generic term used to describe any circular diagram or symbol. In each of the enclosures, specific deities are invoked, each circuit being considered a cosmological form that supports devatā circles, or grou
ps of goddesses. The power and harmony of each circle of deities is relative to the central deity: the deity clusters are like veils concealing the yantra’s innermost essence. After the practitioner has invoked all of the deities in the prescribed manner for meditation, he reaches a level of consciousness in which all of the devatā circles are fused to become the presiding deity at the center of the yantra. Gradually, this central deity itself disappears and merges into the center of spiritual consciousness, the bindu of the yantra and the highest psychic center between the adept’s eyebrows.

  The bindu is a fusion of all directions and of all levels, a point of termination where all is. From the gates that are his own subconscious forces, the yogi has passed through the circuits to be reunited with the permanent element of the universe. The ultimate state of union is achieved when he experiences the out-petaling of the soul flower, the thousand-petaled lotus, rising out of the crown of the head. The awareness that ensues from such meditation constitutes a spiritual climax, a state of yogic enstasis (samādhi). This is a state of psychic continuum, free from mental fluctuations, in which there is a perfect merging of symbol and psyche. The journey from the periphery to the center of the yantra may be measured physically in a few inches, but psychologically the return to the primordial source represented by the bindu is a vast mental distance, demanding the discipline of a lifetime.

  The spiritual journey, then, is taken as a pilgrimage in which every step is an ascent of the center, a movement beyond one’s limited existence, and every level is nearer to the goal, an affirmation of the unity of existence. Traditionally such a journey is mapped in nine stages, and each of these stages corresponds with one of the nine closed circuits of which the yantra is composed. Starting from the outer square and moving inward, the nine rings of the Śrīcakra bear specific names, related to their characteristics; the first circuit (Trailokyamohana cakra) “enchants the three worlds”; the second (Sarvāśāparipūraka cakra) “fulfills all expectations”; the third (Sarvasaṅkṣobhaṇa cakra) “agitates all”; the fourth (Sarvasaubhāgyadāyaka cakra) “grants fortune and excellence”; the fifth (Sarvārthasādhaka cakra) is the “accomplisher of all”; the sixth (Sarvarakṣākara cakra), “protects all”; the seventh (Sarvaroghara cakra) “cures all ills”; the eighth (Sarvasiddhiprada cakra) “grants all perfection”; and the highest (Sarvānandamaya cakra) is “replete with bliss.”