Hellfire Boys
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Brophy, Leo P., Wyndham D. Miles, and Rexmond C. Cochrane. The Chemical Warfare Service: From Laboratory to Field. Washington, DC: Center of Military History, 1959.
Brown, Frederic J. Chemical Warfare: A Study in Restraints. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1968.
Christianson, Scott. The Last Gasp: The Rise and Fall of the American Gas Chamber. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2010.
Clark, Edward B. William L. Sibert: The Army Engineer. Philadelphia: Dorrance and Co., 1930.
Cochrane, Rexmond C. The National Academy of Sciences: The First Hundred Years, 1863–1963. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 1978.
Coleman, Kim. A History of Chemical Warfare. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.
Conant, James B. My Several Lives: Memoirs of a Social Inventor. New York: Harper and Row, 1970.
Crowell, Benedict, and Robert Forrest Wilson. The Armies of Industry II: Our Nation’s Manufacture of Munitions for a World in Arms, 1917–1918. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1921.
Dickey, Robert W. Goliath of Panama: The Life of Soldier and Canal Builder William Luther Sibert. Morley, MO: Acclaim Press, 2015.
Faith, Thomas I. Behind the Gas Mask: The U.S. Chemical Warfare Service in War and Peace. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2014.
Falls, Cyril. The Great War: 1914–1918. New York: Capricorn Books, 1959.
Ferrell, Robert H. Woodrow Wilson and World War I: 1917–1921. New York: Harper and Row, 1985.
Foulkes, Charles H. “Gas!” The Story of the Special Brigade. Edinburgh: William Blackwood and Sons, 1934. Facsimile. Uckfield, East Sussex: Naval and Military Press, 2009.
Fox, Frank. The Battle of the Ridges: Arras–Messines, March–June, 1917. London: C. Arthur Pearson, 1918.
Freemantle, Michael. Gas! Gas! Quick Boys! How Chemistry Changed the First World War. Gloucestershire, England: Spellmount, 2013.
Fries, Amos Alfred, and Clarence J. West. Chemical Warfare. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1921.
Gage, Beverly. The Day Wall Street Exploded: A Story of America in Its First Age of Terror. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.
General Electric, National Lamp Works. National in the World War, April 6, 1917–November 11, 1918. Cleveland: General Electric, 1920.
Haber, Ludwig Fritz. The Poisonous Cloud: Chemical Warfare in the First World War. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986.
Hart, Peter. The Great War: A Combat History of the First World War. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.
Hershberg, James. James B. Conant: Harvard to Hiroshima and the Making of the Nuclear Age. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993.
Jacobsen, Annie. Operation Paperclip: The Secret Intelligence Program That Brought Nazi Scientists to America. New York: Back Bay Books, 2014.
Jankowski, Paul. Verdun: The Longest Battle of the Great War. New York: Oxford, 2013.
Jones, Daniel Patrick. “The Role of Chemists in Research on War Gases in the United States During World War I.” PhD thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1969.
Jones, Simon. World War I Gas Warfare Tactics and Equipment. Long Island City, NY: Osprey Publishing, 1994.
Junger, Ernst. Storm of Steel. New York: Penguin Classics, 2016.
Kennedy, David M. Over Here: The First World War and American Society. New York: Oxford University Press, 1980.
Kleber, Brooks E., and Dale Birdsell. The Chemical Warfare Service: Chemicals in Combat. Washington, DC: Center of Military History, 1990.
MacMullan, Margaret. Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World. New York: Random House, 2003.
. The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914. New York: Random House, 2013.
Marchand, C. Rowland. The American Peace Movement and Social Reform, 1898–1918. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972.
Mayor, Adrienne. Greek Fire, Poison Arrows and Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World. Woodstock, New York: Overlook Duckworth, 2003.
MacMullin, Robert Burns. With E of the First Gas. Brooklyn, NY: Holton Printing, 1919.
McCullough, David. The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal 1870–1914. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1977.
McGrayne, Sharon Bertsch. Prometheans in the Lab: Chemistry and the Making of the Modern World. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001.
Millikan, Robert A. The Autobiography of Robert A. Millikan. New York: Prentice Hall, 1950.
Millman, Chad. The Detonators: The Secret Plot to Destroy America and an Epic Hunt for Justice. New York: Little Brown, 2006.
Mills, J. Saxon. The Panama Canal: A History and Description of the Enterprise. New York: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1913.
Mulliken, Robert S. Life of a Scientist. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1968.
Osborn, Albert. John Fletcher Hurst: A Biography. New York: Eaton and Mains, 1905.
Palmer, Frederick. Newton D. Baker: America at War. Vols. 1 and 2. New York: Dodd, Mead and Co., 1931.
. John J. Pershing: General of the Armies. Harrisburg, PA: Military Service Publishing, 1948.
Pershing, John J. My Experiences in the World War. Vols. 1 and 2. New York: Harper and Row, 1931. Reprint. Blue Ridge Summit, PA: Tab Books, 1989.
Pollard, Captain Hugh B. C. The Story of Ypres. New York: Robert M. McBride and Co., 1917.
Powell, Edward Alexander. The Army behind the Army. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1919.
Powell, Fred Wilbur. The Bureau of Mines: Its History, Activities and Organization. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1922.
Prentiss, Augustin M. Chemicals in War. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1937.
Preston, Diana. Lusitania: An Epic Tragedy. New York: Walker and Co., 2002.
. A Higher Form of Killing: Six Weeks in World War I That Forever Changed the Nature of Warfare. New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2015.
Reed, Germaine M. Crusading for Chemistry: The Professional Career of Charles Herty Holmes. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1995.
Rintelen von Kleist, Franz. The Dark Invader. New York: Macmillan, 1933.
Romano, James A., Jr., Brian Luckey, and Harry Salem. Chemical Warfare Agents: Chemistry, Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2008.
Smythe, Donald. Pershing: General of the Armies. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986.
Society of the First Division. History of the First Division During the World War, 1917–1919. Philadelphia: John C. Winston, 1922.
Spaulding, Thomas M. The Cosmos Club on Lafayette Square. Manasha, WI: George Banta Publishing, 1949.
Stevenson, David. With Our Backs to the Wall: Victory and Defeat in 1918. London: Penguin, 2011.
Stockbridge, Frank Parker. Yankee Ingenuity in the War. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1920.
Strother, French. Fighting Germany’s Spies. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page and Co., 1918.
Terraine, John. To Win a War: 1918, The Year of Victory. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1981.
Theoharis, Athan G. The FBI: A Comprehensive Reference Guide. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press, 1999.
Tuchman, Barbara W. The Guns of August. New York: Presidio Press, 2004.
Tucker, Johnathan B. War of Nerves: Chemical Warfare from World War I to al-Qaeda. New York: Pantheon Books, 2006.
Tumulty, Joseph Patrick. Woodrow Wilson As I Know Him. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page and Co., 1921.
Tunney, Thomas J., and Paul Merrick Hollister. Throttled! The Detection of the German and Anarchist Bomb Plotters. Boston: Small, Maynard and Co., 1919.
Underhill, Frank Pell. The Lethal War Gases: Physiology and Experimental Treatment. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1920.
Vandiver, Frank E. Black Jack: The Life and Times of John J. Pershing. Vol. 2. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1977.
Venzon, Anne Cipriano. The United States in the First World War. New York: Routledge, 2003.
Vilensky, Joel A. Dew of Death: The Story of Lewisite, America’s World War I Weapon of Mass Destruction. Bloomington: India
na University Press, 2005.
Warthin, Aldred Scott, and Carl Vernon Weller. The Medical Aspects of Mustard Gas Poisoning. St. Louis: C. V. Mosby, 1919.
Watkins, Owen Spencer. With French in France and Flanders. London: Charles H. Kelly, 1915.
Wilkinson, Christina L. Willoughby. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, 2012.
Wilson, Edith Bolling. My Memoir. New York: Bobs-Merrill, 1939.
Yerkes, Robert M. The New World of Science. New York: Century, 1920.
Yokelson, Mitchell. Forty-Seven Days: How Pershing’s Warriors Came of Age to Defeat the German Army in World War I. New York: NAL Caliber, 2016.
Zieger, Robert H. America’s Great War. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2000.
Government Documents
The following list does not include individual documents cited in endnotes that are included in larger archival collections.
Bancroft, W. D. Bancroft’s History of the Chemical Warfare Service in the United States. Washington, DC: Research Division, Chemical Warfare Service, American University Experiment Station, 1919.
Cochrane, Rexmond C. The 26th Division East of the Meuse, Sept. 1918. U.S. Army Chemical Corps Historical Studies, Gas Warfare in World War I. U.S. Army Chemical Corps Historical Office. Washington, DC: Office of the Chief Chemical Officer, 1960.
Fries, Amos A. Gas in Attack and Gas in Defense. 1919.
Gordon, Martin K., Barry R. Sude, Ruth Ann Overbeck, and Charles Hendricks. A Brief History of the American University Experiment Station and U.S. Navy Bomb Disposal School. American University Office of History, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1994.
Grandine, Katharine, William R. Henry Jr., and Irene Jackson Henry. Aberdeen Proving Ground (Edgewood Arsenal), Written Historical and Descriptive Data. Historic American Engineering Record, no. MD-47. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, 1985.
Heller, Major Charles E. Chemical Warfare in World War I: The American Experience, 1917–1918. Leavenworth Papers, no. 10. Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, 1984.
Hendricks, Charles. Combat and Construction: U.S. Army Engineers in World War I. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Office of History. Fort Belvoir, VA, 1993.
Manning, Van H. “Petroleum Investigations and Production of Helium.” Advance chapter from War Work of the Bureau of Mines, Bulletin 178-A. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1919.
. “War Gas Investigations.” Advance chapter from War Work of the Bureau of Mines, Bulletin 178. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1919.
Navy Directory, Officers of the United States Navy. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1919.
Sidell, Frederick R., Ernest T. Takafuji, and David R. Franz, editors. Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare. Washington, DC: Office of the Surgeon General, 1997.
U.S Army. Potential Military Chemical/Biological Agents and Compounds. U.S. Army Field Manual 3-11.9. 2005.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers: A History. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2008.
U.S. Army Department of Ordnance. History of Pyrotechnics in World War. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1920.
U.S. Bureau of Mines. Seventh Annual Report by the Director of the Bureau of Mines to the Secretary of the Interior for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1917. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1917.
. Eighth Annual Report by the Director of the Bureau of Mines to the Secretary of the Interior for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1918. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1918.
U.S. Chemical Warfare Service. Report of the Chemical Warfare Service. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1918.
U.S. Department of the Interior. Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1915. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1915.
. Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1920. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1920.
U.S. House of Representatives. Army Reorganization: Hearings before the Committee on Military Affairs. 66th Congress, 1st session, on HR 8287, HR 8068, HR 7925, HR 8870. Part 1. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1919.
. War Expenditures: Hearings before Subcommittee 3 (Foreign Expenditures) of the Select Committee on Expenditures in the War Department, House of Representatives. 66th Congress, 2nd session, on War Expenditures. Vol 3. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1920.
U.S. Senate. Army Appropriation Bill: Hearings before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Military Affairs, United States Senate. 66th Congress, 1st session, on HR 5227. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1919.
. Reorganization of the Army: Hearings before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Military Affairs, United States Senate. 66th Congress, 1st session, on S. 2691, S. 2693, S. 2715. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1919.
Notes
Abbreviations
AEF—American Expeditionary Forces
BOI—Bureau of Investigation
BOM—Bureau of Mines
CCM—U.S. Army Chemical Corps Museum
CWS—Chemical Warfare Service
NAB—National Archives Building, Washington, D.C.
NACP—National Archives at College Park, MD
NARA—National Archives and Records Administration
OCE—Office of the Chief of Engineers
OGF—Old German Files
RG—record group
USACE—U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
WDG—War Department General and Special Staffs
Introduction: January 5, 1993
The sky over Washington: NOAA historical weather data; Washington Post, Jan. 5, 1993.
At around 1:40: USACE, After Action Report for the Service Response Force Conducting Operation Safe Removal 5 Jan.–3 Feb. 1993 (Edgewood Research, Development & Engineering Center, Mar. 1994).
He called the fire department: Ibid., 12.
The area could: Martin Weil and Santiago O’Donnell, “WWI Munitions Unearthed at D.C. Construction Site,” Washington Post, Jan. 6, 1993.
Ultimately, 144 pieces: USACE, After Action Report for the Service Response Force Conducting Operation Safe Removal, 5 Jan.–3 Feb. 1993 (Edgewood Research, Development & Engineering Center, Oct. 1994).
In an ironic counterpoint: “U.N. Inspection Team Cools Heels in Bahrain: Crew Was Headed for Iraqi Toxic Arms Dump,” Washington Post, Jan. 13, 1993, A17.
Prologue
Ypres: The book generally uses spellings from the war era, when west Flanders was more French influenced than it is today. Flemish nationalism has replaced almost all French names with Dutch, turning “Ypres” into “Ieper.”
Marie was twenty-six: Dominiek Dendooven, archivist at the In Flanders Fields Museum in Ypres (Ieper), Belgium, compiled eyewitness accounts of Apr. 22, 1915, in a document entitled “Overview: 22 April 1915—Eyewitness Accounts of the First Gas Attack.” This included the accounts of Marie Desaegher, Maurice Quaghebeur, and others, from scanned diaries, letters, and other supporting documentation.
Just before 5:30 p.m.: Major Charles E. Heller, Chemical Warfare in World War I: The American Experience, 1917–1918, Leavenworth Papers, no. 10 (Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, 1984).
From the city: Owen S. Watkins, “Personal Glimpses,” Literary Digest, Sept. 4, 1915, 483.
Others were staggering: Jonathan B. Tucker, War of Nerves: Chemical Warfare from World War I to al-Qaeda (New York: Pantheon Books, 2006), 15.
The Canadians turned: Max Arthur, Forgotten Voices of the Great War: A History of World War I in the Words of the Men and Women Who Were There (Guilford, CT: Lyons Press, 2004), 79–80. This account from Private W. Underwood of the First Canadia
n Division is quoted in Dendooven’s “Overview: 22 April 1915.”
neutralizing agent: Sodium thiosulfate. Ludwig Fritz Haber, The Poisonous Cloud: Chemical Warfare in the First World War (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), 32.
There had been hints: Amos A. Fries and Clarence J. West, Chemical Warfare (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1921), 11.
“the Chemists’ War”: “A Chemists’ War,” Evening World, May 6, 1915, 18.
In fact, scientists had been: “Government Expert on Explosives Tells of Important Part Played by Chemistry in War,” Evening Star, Nov. 29, 1914, 6.
“I have never”: Videotaped interview with Jeanne Battheu and transcript courtesy of Talbot House, Poperinge, Belgium. Ms. Battheu’s recollections came close to the end of her life, and in the videotape, she recalled the year as 1916 and was not specific as to the dates of her memories. Military historian Simon Jones confirmed that records from Poperinge indicate that there was a 1916 chlorine gas attack.
Chapter One: Holy Week
“What horrors night foretells”: Excerpt from “Prelude to Battle,” Robert B. MacMullin, First Gas Regiment Collection, CCM, Fort Leonard Wood, MO.
Red, white, and blue bunting: “Pacifists Meeting Proves Big Fizzle,” Washington Times, Apr. 3, 1917, 4.
Rather, it was a genteel reception: “Give Dinner for William F. Finleys,” Washington Times, Apr. 3, 1917, 7.
The elegant banquet hall: “Political Affairs Crowd Society,” Washington Herald, Apr. 3, 1917, 6.
For months: War Expenditures: Hearings before Subcommittee No. 3 (Foreign Expenditures) of the Select Committee on Expenditures in the War Department, vol. 3, 66th Congress, 3406 (1920).
Tanks made their debut: “Tank Was Juggernaut to Helpless Germans,” New York Times, Oct. 13, 1916, 3.
From its earliest days: “Voice Protest Against War,” Northwest Worker, Feb. 7, 1917, 1.
Isolationists viewed the war: Senate Majority Leader Robert La Follette of Wisconsin was most prominent.
The prominent role: Sharon Bertsch McGrayne, Prometheans in the Lab: Chemistry and the Making of the Modern World (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001), 66.
Just days after the attack: Diana Preston, A Higher Form of Killing: Six Weeks in World War I That Forever Changed the Nature of Warfare (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2015), 113.