Hellfire Boys

by Theo Emery

  As the ship moved out: Higginbottom diary entry, Jan. 24, 1918.

  “The situation is hopeless”: Letter from Jabine to mother, Jan. 10, 1918.

  “I certainly have been fooled”: Ibid., Feb. 4, 1918.

  “So I left France”: Ibid., Feb. 7, 1919.

  The Celtic steamed: “Celtic Arrives with Gas Troops,” New York Times, Feb. 3, 1919, 8.

  Higgie sent off: Higginbottom diary entry, Feb. 2, 1919.

  “I had the best surprise”: Ibid., Feb. 22, 1918.

  The morning Lawrence Telegram: “Higginbottom Returns Home,” Lawrence Telegram, Feb. 25, 1919, 12.

  The Evening Tribune’s headline: “Higginbottom Is Home from France,” Lawrence Evening Tribune, Feb. 25, 1919, 1.

  Chapter Sixteen: “Fight the Devil”

  In winter of 1918: “Demobilization of Chemical Service Now Under Way,” Retort, Dec. 7, 1918.

  As work slowed: Maurer photo, Olson Family Collection.

  Private Maurer became Sergeant Maurer: U.S. Army promotion certificate, Olson Family Collection.

  His discharge came: Charles William Maurer discharge paper, Olson Family Collection.

  California banned liquor: “California Joins in Vote to Ratify Dry Amendment,” New York Times, Jan. 14, 1919, 1.

  When the Baylor newspaper: “Dr. Gooch Tells of New Gas,” Lariat 20, no. 19 (Feb. 20, 1919): 3.

  Will mailed: Letter from Maurer to Powell, Mar. 2, 1919, Olson Family Collection.

  On December 30: Letter from William Sibert to Bishop J. W. Hamilton, Dec. 31, 1918, reprinted in American University Courier, World War I History Collection, University Archives and Special Collections, American University Library.

  But the postwar landscape: Letter from Bishop John W. Hamilton to Van H. Manning, Apr. 21, 1919, World War I History Collection, University Archives and Special Collections, American University Library.

  Bomb chambers: “Preservation of Grounds of the American University in re: The Necessary Treatment to Restore the Grounds to Their Original Condition Prior to Their Being Taken Over by the Government,” Nov. 30, 1918, USACE.

  The farmer named Weaver: Memorandum from H. S. Kimberly to Chief, CWS, Aug. 5, 1920, Central Correspondence Files, 1918–1942, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 558, NACP.

  Years after the war ended: “Delayed Opening an Advantage in American University Park,” Washington Post, Nov. 14, 1939, 15.

  After his Christmas reunion: Letter from Amos Fries to unnamed senator, July 24, 1919, War Department, CWS, General Amos A. Fries Papers, 1918–1920, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 7, box 15, NACP.

  When Fries arrived: Army Appropriation Bill: Hearings before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Military Affairs, 66th Congress, 1st session on HR 5227 (1920).

  “There’s not going to be”: Whether Fries met with March was not completely clear. In testimony to Congress, Fries said he did not meet with March that day, but in his later unpublished memoir, he claimed that March did eventually allow him in but cut short the discussion.

  When Fries returned: Fries memoir.

  One of Fries’s most trusted: Memorandum from B. C. Goss to William Sibert, Re: Future Gas Warfare, Jan. 16, 1919, War Department, CWS, General Amos A. Fries Papers, 1918–1920.

  The rustlings: Memorandum from Major General Henry Jervey to Chief of Engineers, Re: Chemical Warfare, Feb. 21, 1919, General Fries’ File, 1917–1943, A–C, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 7, box 15, NACP.

  At its peak: McPherson, “Historical Sketch,” 53.

  Four months later: Report of Edgewood Arsenal for week of Mar. 16 to Mar. 22, inclusive, Mar. 24, 1919, Central Correspondence, 1918–1940, War Department, War Department, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 166, NACP.

  William McPherson: Letter from William McPherson to Professor W. E. Henderson, Dec. 17, 1918, Technical Document Files, 1917–1920, Major McPherson’s Personnel File—Masks, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 8, box 10, NACP.

  The Bureau of Mines: Memorandum from Newton Baker to Secretary of the Interior, Mar. 22, 1920, Central Correspondence, 1918–1940, War Department, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 345, NACP.

  The War Department ordered: Memorandum from Adjutant General’s Office, Dec. 23, 1918, OCE, RG 77, finding aid NM-78, entry 104, box 98, NACP.

  By December 11, 1918: Memorandum, Organizations at Camp Leach, This Date, Dec. 11, 1918.

  The engineers dismantled: Memorandum, Received from the Officer’s Club, Camp Leach, DC, Dec. 27, 1918.

  The camp’s buildings: Circular accounting date of bid opening for buildings and government-owned property at Camp Leach, June 18, 1919, USACE, Spring Valley–Baltimore District, administrative record, Property C03DC0918.

  American University had its share: “Toxic Gases Received at Edgewood from the American University Experiment Station,” Apr. 14, 1919, War Department, Central Correspondence, 1918–1940, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 460, NACP.

  On March 1, 1919: Memo from William L. Sibert to George F. Moulton, Mar. 1, 1919, USACE.

  Gas shells, cylinders, jugs: “Toxic Gases Received at Edgewood from the American University Experiment Station.”

  An Army Corps of Engineers: Memorandum from Wm. Black, Chief of Engineers, to Ordnance Office Supply Division, Storage of Gas Shells, June 3, 1918, Central Correspondence, 1918–1940, War Department, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 477, NACP.

  Time would reveal: “A Burning Village,” American University Courier 27, no. 2 (Jan. 1921): 4–5.

  It wasn’t until November: Memorandum from chemistry professor H. P. Ward to Chief, CWS, regarding (a) Removal of Toxic Materials (b) Clearance to CWS, Jan. 13, 1922, Central Correspondence, 1918–1940, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 3, NACP.

  Inside Maloney Hall: Memorandum from Captain E. P. H. Gempel to Major W. C. Baker, CWS, regarding (a) Repairs Damages to Buildings and Equipment (b) Removal of Toxic Materials, Nov. 23, 1921, Central Correspondence, 1918–1940, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 3, NACP.

  A letter from the chief: Letter from Major W. C. Baker to Professor Hardee Chambliss, Catholic University of America, Nov. 28, 1921, Central Correspondence, 1918–1940, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 2, NACP.

  The process of dismantling: A letter from A. M. Heritage to Colonel Frank Dorsey, Nov. 19, 1919, indicates that there were seventy-two thousand pounds of aluminum and two thousand tons of arsenic still stored at the Ben-Hur plant a year after the war ended. Office of Chief, Central Correspondence, 1918–1942, War Department, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 347, NACP.

  When the Purchase and Storage Division: Copy of memorandum from Major William Wilson, Chief, Raw Materials and Scrap Section, to Office of Director of Storage, Aug. 19, 1919, Office of the Chief, Central Correspondence, 1918–1940, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 461, NACP.

  With no means: Memorandum from Frank Dorsey to William Walker, Disposal of Toxic Material, Jan. 22, 1919, Chemical Warfare Correspondence, 1918–1942, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 571, NACP.

  Walker’s solution: Memorandum from William Walker to William Sibert, Jan. 27, 1919, Chemical Warfare Correspondence, 1918–1942, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 571, NACP.

  On January 30: Memorandum from William Sibert to Frank Dorsey, Special Train Movement, Jan. 30, 1919, Chemical Warfare Correspondence, 1918–1942, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 543, NACP.

  Arrangements for the rail shipment: Copy of memorandum from Chief, Inland Traffic Service, to Director, CWS, Property Movement, Gases, Poisonous, from Various Points to Edgewood Arsenal, Edgewood, MD, Jan. 31, 1919, Office of the Chief, Central Correspondence, 1918–1940, War Department, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 543, NACP.

  Despite Sibert’s warnings: Letter from Lieutenant H. M. Scheitert, Transportation Section, CWS, to Major Neil Bailey, Special Train Movement from Willoughby, Ohio, Feb. 10, 1919, Office of the Chie
f, Central Correspondence, 1918–1940, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 543, NACP.

  Two days slipped by: Letter from Chief, Inland Traffic Service, to Director, CWS, Property Movements, Gases, Poisons, from Various Points, Transportation of Guards, Feb. 13, 1919, Office of the Chief, Central Correspondence, 1918–1940, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 543, NACP.

  until they decided: Letter from William Sibert to Major N. E. Bailey, Inland Traffic, Transportation of Guards on Toxic Gas Train, Feb. 12, 1919, Office of the Chief, Central Correspondence, 1918–1940, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 543, NACP.

  On Friday, February 7: Letter from Captain C. H. Hawley to First Lieutenant H. M. Schwietert, Shipment of Toxic Gases, Feb. 3, 1919, Office of the Chief, Central Correspondence, 1918–1940, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 543, NACP.

  There were also containers: Memorandum from Major General William Sibert to Colonel Dorsey, Re: Special Train Movement, Jan. 30, 1919, Office of the Chief, Central Correspondence, 1918–1942, War Department, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 543, NACP.

  When all the drums: Memorandum from Lieutenant H. M. Schweitert to Major General Sibert, Re: Special Train Movement of Toxic Gases, Feb. 10, 1919, Office of the Chief, Central Correspondence, 1918–1942, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 543, NACP.

  The train passed: 1918 Ohio Railway Map, listed on the website of the Northern Ohio Association of Railway Societies. Available at www.trainweb.org/noars/railroads.htm.

  From there, the train continued: Memorandum from Schweitert to Sibert, Re: Special Train Movement of Toxic Gases.

  Just after 3:00 a.m.: Author interview with Richard Bly, Kane Historic Preservation Society.

  The train idled: Memorandum from Lieutenant H. M. Schweitert to Major General Sibert, Re: Special Train Movement of Toxic Gases.

  The train had made: Ibid.

  Precisely what happened next: Many years later, Amos Fries contradicted that account when he responded to an insistent letter-writing critic that “no lewisite was ever thrown into any sea.” Exactly what happened to the lewisite, how it was disposed of and where, officially remains a mystery.

  albeit unlikely: A U.S. Army researcher believes this is unlikely because of the quick turnaround that would have been required for the lewisite to be sent from Edgewood to Baltimore the same day. It would require orders from high in the army command and coordination of multiple army offices.

  On January 28: Memorandum to Director, Operations Division, General Staff, Jan. 27, 1919, Central Correspondence, 1918–1940, War Department, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 477, NACP.

  Sibert asked for permission: Ibid.

  Three days later: Memorandum from Adjutant General to Sibert, Jan. 30, 1919, CWS Correspondence, 1918–1940, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 477, NACP.

  Originally, the Elinor: Memorandum from Captain John E. Craig to Superintendent of Water Transportation, Re: Elinor and Ysel Haven—Disposal of Mustard Gas and Phosgene Cargo, Feb. 1, 1919, Office of the Chief, Central Correspondence, 1918–1942, War Department, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 477, NACP.

  On February 10: Deck logs of the USS Elinor, Mar. 20, 1918–Apr. 26, 1919, Records of the Bureau of Naval Personnel, RG 24, entry 118-G-E, National Archives Building, Washington, DC.

  On April 20, 1919: “Our Super-Poison Gas,” New York Times Magazine, Apr. 20, 1919, 1.

  In late May: “Most Deadly Gas Was US Invention,” Washington Times, May 25, 1919, 12.

  In March, Sibert warned Dorsey: Memorandum from William Sibert to Frank Dorsey, Mar. 11 1919, Office of the Chief, Central Correspondence, 1918–1942, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 166, NACP.

  As late as 1927: Letter from Amos Fries to W. Lee Lewis, Feb. 2, 1927, War Department, Office of the Chief, Central Correspondence, 1918–1942, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 466, NACP.

  “The War Department believes”: Reorganization of the Army: Hearings before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Military Affairs, 66th Congress, 2nd session 93 (Aug. 8, 1919) (statement of Peyton March, Chief of Staff, U.S. Army), 93.

  “The Philistines are”: Letter from Amos Fries to Bradley Dewey, Aug. 18, 1919, General Fries’ Files, 1918–1920, C–E, box 16, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 7, box 16, NACP.

  “It is the most humane”: Reorganization of the Army: Hearings before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Military Affairs, 66th Congress, 1st session, 365 (Aug. 26, 1919) (statement of Major General William L. Sibert, Director, CWS).

  Away from the hearing rooms: Letter from Amos Fries to Mr. H. Z. Osborne Jr., Aug. 7, 1919, General Amos A. Fries Papers, 1918–1920, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 7, box 19, NACP.

  Over the winter: Letter from A. Bruce Bielaski to Colonel John M. Donne, General Staff, Dec. 21, 1918, Investigative Case Files of the BOI, 1908–1922, NARA M1085, OGF, 1909–21, case no. 8000-925, roll 279, NACP.

  The chief of the inventions division: Letter from Colonel John M. Donne, General Staff, to A. Bruce Bielaski, Jan. 18, 1919, Investigative Case Files of the BOI, 1908–1922, NARA M1085, OGF, 1909–21, case no. 8000-925, roll 279, NACP.

  Support from Thomas Edison’s: Letter from W. H. Meadowcraft to Bruce R. Silver, Feb. 28, 1919, Special Collection Series, Naval Consulting Board and Related Wartime Research Papers, Correspondence, Feb. 1919, Edison Papers, reel 281, frame 39.

  Even though Scheele: “Master German Spy,” Chattanooga News, Apr. 26, 1919, 3.

  Bruce Silver grilled Scheele: Agent V. J. Valjavec, Protection at Jones Point, NY, report for May 11, 1919, Investigative Case Files of the BOI, 1908–1922, NARA M1085, OGF, 1909–21, case 8000-925, roll 279, NACP.

  Nevertheless, in June: “Bernstorff Used Dyes as War Club,” New York Times, June 16, 1919, 4.

  At least one chemist: “Deadly War Compound More Than Thirty Years Old,” New York Times, June 18, 1919, 16.

  The judge set Scheele’s bail: “Wall Street Explosion Laid to Gelatin,” New York Times, Oct. 16, 1920, 16.

  Then he walked out: Agent V. J. Valjavec, Protection at Jones Point, NY, report for June 4, 1919.

  Reporters remained: Two BOI documents, the backdated report from Agent Valjavec and a later partial report in bureau records, date his bail hearing as June 4. The newspaper accounts that appeared June 6 report that he appeared the day before, on June 5.

  As part of the conditions: Report from BOI agent E. P. Martin, In Re. Dr. Walter v. [sic] Scheele—Violation Espionage, May 12, 1919, Investigative Case Files of the BOI, 1908–1922, NARA M1085, OGF, 1909–21, case no. 8000-925, roll 279, NACP.

  “now is in the employ”: Letter from unnamed agent in charge to Mr. J. M. Nye, Chief Special Agent, Department of State, Dec. 5, 1919, Investigative Case Files of the BOI, 1908–1922, NARA M1085, OGF, 1909–21, case no. 8000-925, roll 279, NACP.

  His goal was: “Form New Oil Company,” New York Sun, Apr. 1, 1919, 13.

  Levering himself wrote: Letter from Richmond M. Levering to State Department on behalf of George A. Burrell, Jan. 20, 1919, U.S. Passport Application, 1795–1925, Ancestry.com.

  If Bielaski’s Justice Department colleagues: “Gift Car for Mr. Bielaski,” Evening Star, Feb. 26, 1919, 2.

  In July, Chemical Warfare Service: “Gas Veterans Organize,” Evening World, July 23, 1919, 5.

  On August 30: “Helping Soldiers Keep Insurance,” New York Times, Sept. 1, 1919, 7; “Chemical Warfare Post of the American Legion Protests the Abolition of the Chemical Warfare Service,” Chemical Age 1, no. 4 (Sept. 10, 1919): 170.

  With so many: Legion Drive Will Be Extended Week,” New York Sun, Sept. 20, 1919, 18.

  When the music swelled: Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 11, no. 10 (Oct. 1, 1919): 915.

  Billed as both: “Peace Meeting of the American Chemical Society,” Catalyst 4, no. 8 (Oct. 1919).

  For the first time: “National Publicity for Philadelphia Meeting,” Catalyst,
Oct. 1919.

  Now with the future: Letter from Charles L. Parsons to Newton Baker, June 25, 1919, General Fries’ Files, 1918–1920, O–S, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 7, box 19, NACP.

  If there was any: “Annual Meeting American Chemical Society,” Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 11, no. 10 (Oct. 1, 1919), 911.

  The day after: Hearings before the Committee on Military Affairs, House of Representatives, Washington, DC, Government Printing Office, 1919, 59.

  The War Department: Letter from Bradley Dewey to W. Nephew King, Apr. 10, 1919, Office of the Chief, Central Correspondence, 1918–1942, War Department, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 1, box 388, NACP.

  Around the country: Amos A. Fries, Mob Control, General Fries’ Files, A–C, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 7, box 15, NACP.

  Even General William Black: Letter from Amos A. Fries to Lieutenant Colonel Earl J. Atkisson, Sept. 25, 1919, General Fries’ Files, A–C, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 7, box 15, NACP.

  But in the waning days: Casualties from Gas in the AEF (Official Figures Compiled by Surgeon General’s Office), General Fries Files, 1918–1920, O–S, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 7, box 19, NACP.

  But he eagerly seized: Letter from Amos Fries to Colonel George S. Watson, Sept. 3, 1919, General Fries’ Files, 1918–1920, S–Z, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 7, box 20, NACP.

  In November, General March: “Finds Gas Humane in War,” New York Times, Nov. 26, 1919, 6.

  Two and a half: J. J. Rowe, R. O. Fournier, and G. W. Morey, “Chemical Analysis of Thermal Waters in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, 1960–65,” Geological Survey Bulletin 1303 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973).

  Bessie put the house: Telegram from transportation officer to Amos Fries, July 16, 1919, General Fries’ Files, 1918–1920, S–Z, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 7, box 20, NACP.

  brought the children: Amos A. Fries, Personnel Report and Statement of Preferences for All Officers, Jan. 15, 1920, General Fries’ Files, 1918–1920, O–S, RG 175, War Department, CWS, Fries’ Files, finding aid PI-8, entry 7, box 19, NACP.

  She shopped for milk: Receipt for officers’ mess, Oct. 27, 1919, receipt for Edgewood Bargain House, Nov.1, 1919, General Fries Files, 1918–1920, O–S, RG 175, War Department, CWS, Fries’ Files, finding aid PI-8, entry 7, box 19, NACP.