by Gary J. Bass
16. Isaacson, Kissinger, pp. 275–77. On the moral responsibilities of government officials, see Michael Walzer, Just and Unjust Wars: A Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations (New York: Basic Books, 1992), pp. 287–96.
17. U.S. Senate, Subcommittee on Refugees, Relief Problems in East Pakistan and India (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1971), 28 June 1971 hearing, pp. 40–51, 27. Blood, Cruel Birth, pp. 330–31.
18. J. F. R. Jacob, Surrender at Dacca: Birth of a Nation (New Delhi: Manohar, 1997), pp. 45–46.
19. Lee Lescaze, “U.S. Arms Aid to Pakistan Bewilders Fearful Bengalis,” Washington Post, 24 July 1971.
20. Anthony Mascarenhas, “Genocide,” Sunday Times (London), 13 June 1971. “Bengal: The Murder of a People,” Newsweek, 2 August 1971. See Anthony Mascarenhas, The Rape of Bangla Desh (New Delhi: Vikas, 1971).
21. See NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 220, Pakistan ambassadors meeting, 24–25 August 1971; NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 220, Muhammad Khan to Dehlavi, 2 October 1971
22. Sydney H. Schanberg, “Hindus Are Targets of Army Terror in an East Pakistan Town,” New York Times, 4 July 1971. Sydney H. Schanberg, “West Pakistan Pursues Subjugation of Bengalis,” New York Times, 14 July 1971.
23. See Kissinger, White House Years, pp. 854, 858–59.
24. FRUS, vol. E-7, White House tapes, Oval Office 549-25, 28 July 1971, 4:21–4:54 p.m. FRUS, Kissinger-Farland memcon, 7 May 1971, pp. 106–9. White House tapes, Oval Office 561-4, 11 August 1971, 9:10–11:40 a.m. FRUS, WSAG meeting, 8 September 1971, pp. 393–404. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 277, Jha to Kaul, 18 April 1971. NSA, Huang-Kissinger memcon, 23 November 1971, 10–11:55 p.m. NSC Files, Box 625, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. IV, Kissinger to Nixon, 14 May 1971.
25. NSC Files, Box H-053, SRG Meetings, Saunders and Kennedy to Kissinger, 7 April 1971. FRUS, Hilaly-Kissinger memcon, 23 July 1971, pp. 267–70. FRUS, vol. E-7, White House tapes, Oval Office 549-25, 28 July 1971, 4:21–4:54 p.m.
26. NSA, Government Accountability Office memorandum for Kennedy, declassified 3 February 1972. NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Saunders and Kennedy to Kissinger, “Military Assistance,” 21 July 1971. NSA, Nixon-Kissinger telcon, 27 July 1971, 7:20 p.m. NSA, Nixon-Kissinger telcon, 1 October 1971, 10:15 a.m. NSA, Nixon-Kissinger telcon, 6 October 1971, 12:50 p.m. FRUS, WSAG minutes, 12 November 1971, 11:09 a.m., pp. 505–14.
27. NSC Files, Box H-053, SRG Meetings, Saunders and Kennedy to Kissinger, 7 April 1971. NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Military Supply, Saunders and Hoskinson to Kissinger, 17 May 1971. NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Military Supply, Kissinger to Nixon, 25 June 1971. MEA, HI/1012/78/71, Jha to Kaul, 14 July 1971. NSA, Nixon-Kissinger telcon, 11 December 1971, 7:30 p.m. NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Davis to Irwin, “Military Supply Policy for Pakistan,” 29 July 1971. For a contrary view, see NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Saunders and Kennedy to Kissinger, 21 July 1971.
28. NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Congressional, Church to Nixon, 22 June 1971. See NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Congressional, Church speech, 22 June 1971; NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Congressional, Saunders to Kissinger, 21 July 1971; NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Congressional, Schiff to Farland, 18 June 1971, State 108854. NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Congressional, Kennedy speech, 22 June 1971. Lewis M. Simons, “Kennedy, U.S. Aide Clash on Pakistan,” Washington Post, 29 June 1971, p. A3. See NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Congressional, Symington speech, 23 July 1971. NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Military Supply, Rogers to Nixon, 23 June 1971. NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Military Supply, Haig to Nixon, 25 June 1971. NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Military Supply, Kissinger to Nixon, 25 June 1971.
29. NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Eliot to Kissinger, 21 July 1971. NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Congressional, Saunders to Kissinger, 23 July 1971. NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Congressional, Van Hollen to Farland, 16 July 1971, State 129207. NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Congressional, Schiff to Farland, 18 June 1971, State 108854. See NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Congressional, Gallagher speech, 17 June 1971; NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Congressional, Muskie speech, 4 November 1971; NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Congressional, Saunders to Kissinger, 23 July 1971. NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Congressional, Church statement, 4 August 1971. NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Congressional, Proxmire statement, 29 July 1971. On Proxmire, see Samantha Power, “A Problem from Hell”: America and the Age of Genocide (New York: Basic Books, 2002), pp. 61–85, 151–69. Proxmire later said, “Thirty years separate the atrocities of Nazi Germany and the Asian sub-continent, but the body counts are not so far apart. Those who felt that genocide was a crime of the past had a rude awakening during the Pakistani occupation of Bangladesh.” (Power, “A Problem from Hell,” p. 82.) NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Congressional, McGovern speech, 8 July 1971. See NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Congressional, McGovern speech, 23 July 1971. See NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Congressional, Mondale speech, 6 May 1971; NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Saunders and Kennedy to Kissinger, “Congressional Strategy,” 22 July 1971.
30. NSA, Kissinger-Rogers telcon, 6 August 1971, 1:30 p.m. See NSA, Kissinger-Rogers telcon, 18 August 1971, 10:07 a.m. NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Saunders and Kennedy to Kissinger, “Military Assistance,” 21 July 1971. NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Saunders and Kennedy to Kissinger, “Congressional Strategy,” 22 July 1971. NSA, Government Accountability Office memorandum for Kennedy, declassified 3 February 1972.
31. FRUS, SRG meeting, 23 July 1971, pp. 270–83.
32. NSC Files, Box 627, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. VIII, Kissinger to Nixon, “Military Supply Policy,” 3 November 1971. NSC Files, Box 570, Indo-Pak War, South Asia, Kissinger to Nixon, 3 August 1971. In June, Pakistan might have still gotten up to $34 million of military supply; by mid-July, a new estimate put it at $15 million or less; and by mid-August, it would be under $5 million. See NSC Files, Box 627, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. VIII, Kissinger to Nixon, “Military Supply Policy,” 3 November 1971; NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Kennedy and Saunders to Kissinger, 30 July 1971.
33. NSA, Nixon-Kissinger telcon, 3 August 1971, 5:25 p.m. NSC Files, Box 570, Indo-Pak War, South Asia, Kissinger to Nixon, 3 August 1971. See NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Eliot to Kissinger, 5 August 1971.
34. NSA, Nixon-Kissinger telcon, 3 August 1971, 5:25 p.m. See NSA, Nixon-Kissinger telcon, 8 November 1971, 7:50 p.m.; NSA, Kissinger-Rogers telcon, 6 August 1971, 1:30 p.m.; NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Congressional, Church statement, 4 August 1971; NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Congressional, Saxbe statement, 27 July 1971.
35. FRUS, Saunders and Hoskinson to Kissinger, 29 October 1971, pp. 479–82. See NSC Files, Box 626, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. VII, Hoskinson to Kissinger, 13 September 1971. NSC Files, Box 626, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. VII, Kissinger-Haq memcon, 10 September 1971. Hoskinson wrote that his notes were “sanitized” so that the State and Defense Departments could see it. (NSC Files, Box 626, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. VII, Hoskinson to Kissinger, 13 September 1971.)
36. NSA, Nixon-Kissinger telcon, 27 July 1971, 7:20 p.m. See Kissinger, White House Years, pp. 865, 875. See FRUS, SRG meeting, 30 July 1971, 3:20 p.m., pp. 292–302.
37. FRUS, SRG meeting, 23 July 1971, pp. 270–83.
38. Ibid. See NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Saunders and Kennedy to Kissinger, “Analytical Summary,” 12 July 1971.
39. NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Saunders and Kennedy to Kissinger, “Analytical Summary,” 12 July 1971. NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Saunde
rs and Kennedy to Kissinger, 21 July 1971. NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Saunders to Kissinger, 10 August 1971. NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Saunders and Kennedy to Kissinger, 21 July 1971. See NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Saunders and Kennedy to Kissinger, “Analytical Summary,” 12 July 1971; NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Saunders to Kissinger, 10 August 1971; NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, draft memorandum for Kissinger to Nixon, 11 August 1971.
40. FRUS, SRG meeting, 23 July 1971, pp. 270–83.
41. NSC Files, Box 625, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. V, Saunders to Kissinger, 30 July 1971. NSC Files, Box 626, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. VI, Hoskinson to Kissinger, 25 August 1971. FRUS, SRG meeting, 30 July 1971, 3:20 p.m., pp. 292–302.
42. FRUS, SRG meeting, 23 July 1971, pp. 270–83. See FRUS, SRG meeting, 30 July 1971, 3:20 p.m., pp. 292–302.
43. FRUS, SRG meeting, 30 July 1971, 3:20 p.m., pp. 292–302. NSC Files, Box 1025, Presidential/HAK MemCons, Farland-Kissinger memcon, 30 July 1971. NSA, Nixon-Kissinger telcon, received 3 August 1971.
44. NSA, Kissinger-Sisco telcon, 27 July 1971, 10:13 a.m. FRUS, SRG meeting, 23 July 1971, pp. 270–83. NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Davis to Irwin, “Scenario for Action in Indo-Pakistan Crisis,” 29 July 1971.
45. FRUS, vol. E-7, White House tapes, Oval Office 549-25, 28 July 1971, 4:21–4:54 p.m.
46. NSA, Kissinger-McNamara telcon, 13 August 1971, 8:40 a.m. FRUS, WSAG meeting, 8 September 1971, pp. 393–404. White House tapes, Oval Office 558-10, 9 August 1971, 5:44–6:18 p.m.
47. FRUS, SRG meeting, 30 July 1971, 3:20 p.m., pp. 292–302.
48. Kissinger, White House Years, pp. 863–64. NSC Files, Box 1025, Presidential/HAK MemCons, Farland-Kissinger memcon, 30 July 1971. See NSC Files, Box 625, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. V, Saunders to Kissinger, 30 July 1971. White House tapes, Oval Office 553-3, 2 August 1971, 9:45 a.m. These were, respectively, Christopher Van Hollen and Joseph Sisco. See NSA, Kissinger-McNamara telcon, 13 August 1971, 8:40 a.m. For a subsequent showdown between Kissinger and Sisco over arms shipments, see NSC Files, Box 626, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. VII, Saunders and Hoskinson to Kissinger, 1 September 1971. NSC Files, Box 626, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. VII, Haig to Kissinger, 1 September 1971. NSC Files, Box H-082, WSAG Meetings, Saunders and Hoskinson to Kissinger, 3 September 1971.
49. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2533, Keating to Rogers, 10 August 1971, New Delhi 12722.
50. White House tapes, Oval Office 553-3, 2 August 1971, 9:45 a.m. FRUS, vol. E-7, White House tapes, Oval Office 624-21, 24 November 1971, 12:27 p.m.
51. POL INDIA-US, Box 2369, Gandhi-Kissinger memcon, 7 July 1971.
52. NSA, Nixon-Kissinger telcon, 27 July 1971, 7:20 p.m.
53. FRUS, vol. E-7, White House tapes, Oval Office 549-25, 28 July 1971, 4:21–4:54 p.m. See White House tapes, Oval Office 547-6, 27 July 1971, 11:05–11:32 a.m. NSC Files, Box 625, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. V, Kissinger to Nixon, 27 July 1971. For an impressively sanitized official record of their talk, see NSC Files, Box 626, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. VI, Nixon-Farland memcon, 28 August 1971, 3:30 p.m.
54. Yvonne Shinhoster Lamb, “Brian Bell; Athlete, Journalist and Diplomat,” Washington Post, 13 October 2006, p. B7. “Brian Bell,” Kentucky New Era, 19 October 2006, p. A2. FRUS, vol. E-7, White House tapes, Oval Office 549-25, 28 July 1971, 4:21–4:54 p.m. Farland said, “Shakespeare got him out”—meaning Frank Shakespeare, the anti-Soviet ideologue whom Nixon had appointed as USIS chief (Richard T. Arndt, The First Resort of Kings: American Cultural Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century [Dulles, Va.: Potomac Books, 2005], pp. 438–43).
55. FRUS, vol. E-7, White House tapes, Oval Office 549-25, 28 July 1971, 4:21–4:54 p.m.
56. Philip Glass, “George Harrison, World-Music Catalyst and Great-Souled Man,” New York Times, 9 December 2001.
57. Harrison interview, The Concert for Bangladesh DVD (1991).
58. Don Heckman, “The Event Wound Up as a Love Feast,” Village Voice, 5 August 1971.
59. Ibid. Maureen Orth, “Dylan—Rolling Again,” Newsweek, 14 January 1974, pp. 46–49. Grace Lichtenstein, “40,000 Cheer 2 Beatles in Dual Benefit for Pakistanis,” New York Times, 2 August 1971, pp. A1, A14. Tom Zito, “George, Ringo, Help from a Friend,” Washington Post, 2 August 1971, pp. B1, B3.
60. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 220, Natwar Singh to Kaul, 12 October 1971. Kamila Shamsie, “Pop Idols,” Granta, no. 112 (fall 2010). NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 220, Hussaini to Pakistani ambassadors, 30 September 1971.
61. White House tapes, Oval Office 553-3, 2 August 1971, 9:45 a.m.
62. FRUS, vol. E-7, White House tapes, Oval Office 549-25, 28 July 1971, 4:21–4:54 p.m. White House tapes, Oval Office 553-3, 2 August 1971, 9:45 a.m. See NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Saunders and Kennedy to Kissinger, Analytical Summary, 10 August 1971. White House tapes, Oval Office 561-4, 11 August 1971, 9:10–11:40 a.m. See Kissinger, White House Years, p. 869. See also NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Kissinger to Nixon, “Talking Points,” 11 August 1971. NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Nixon and SRG memcon, 11 August 1971.
63. On Keating, see NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Saunders to Kissinger, 12 August 1971; NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Davis to Eliot, 2 September 1971; NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Nixon and SRG memcon (sanitized version), 11 August 1971.
64. NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Nixon and SRG memcon, 11 August 1971.
65. FRUS, SRG meeting, 11 August 1971, pp. 320–23. See NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Saunders to Kissinger, 10 August 1971.
66. FRUS, WSAG meeting, 22 November 1971, 2:39–3:14 p.m., pp. 529–36. FRUS, WSAG meeting, 8 September 1971, pp. 393–404. See NSC Files, Box H-082, WSAG Meetings, Saunders and Hoskinson to Kissinger, 3 September 1971; NSA, Kissinger-Johnson telcon, 7 October 1971, 11:37 a.m.; NSA, Kissinger-Johnson telcon, 8 October 1971, 11:30 a.m.; Kissinger, White House Years, pp. 863–54.
67. White House tapes, Oval Office 553-3, 2 August 1971, 9:45 a.m.
68. “President Nixon’s News Conference,” New York Times, 5 August 1971.
69. White House tapes, Oval Office 561-4, 11 August 1971, 9:10–11:40 a.m. See White House tapes, Oval Office 784-21, 21 September 1972, 12:25–2:01 p.m. As Samantha Power astutely writes, “It is in the realm of domestic politics that the battle to stop genocide is lost.” (“A Problem from Hell,” p. xviii.)
CHAPTER 14: SOVIET FRIENDS
1. Singh to Narayan, 10 December 1971, Jayaprakash Narayan, Selected Works, ed. Bimal Prasad (New Delhi: Manohar, 2008), vol. 9, p. 878. Sham Lal, “The Realpolitik of Charity,” Times of India, 11 June 1971. Jayaprakash Narayan, “Bangladesh and India’s Future,” Indian Express, 27–28 October 1971, Narayan, Selected Works, pp. 660–66.
2. K. Subrahmanyam, “Military Aid to Pakistan and Its Repercussions on Bangla Desh,” in Ranjit Gupta and Radhakrishna, eds., World Meet on Bangla Desh (New Delhi: Impex, 1971), pp. 116–18. MEA, WII/121/54/71, vol. II, Menon to Kaul, 5 July 1971. MEA, WII/121/54/71, Gonsalves to Kaul, 6 July 1971. Shashi Tharoor, Reasons of State: Political Development and India’s Foreign Policy Under Indira Gandhi, 1966–1977 (New Delhi: Vikas, 1982), p. 301. In 1970, 66 percent of Indians had a good or very good opinion of the United States, against 9 percent with a bad or very bad opinion. In 1971, it was 49 percent good or very good, and 28 percent bad or very bad.
3. MEA, HI/121/13/71, vol. I, Singh statement in Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha, 24 June 1971. MEA, WII/109/15/71, Verma to Menon, 20 August 1971. MEA, WII/109/15/71, Lamabah to Jha, 20 July 1971. Lewis M. Simons, “Pakistan Using U.S. Jetliners to Help Move Men to Bengal,” Washington Post, 19 August 1971, p. A22. NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Eliot to Kissinger, 5 August 1971. PIA had only seven of its own 707s, in addition to these two leased ones; even if the leased U.S. planes were not carrying troops, they freed up the other 707s to do so. NSC Files, Box H-082, WSA
G Meetings, Eliot to Kissinger, “Situation Report: India/Pakistan,” 1 September 1971. See Sydney H. Schanberg, “U.S.-India Relations: A New Low,” New York Times, 27 July 1971; Sydney H. Schanberg, “A Bitter New Delhi Not Likely to Be Easily Soothed,” New York Times, 6 September 1971.
4. NSC Files, Box 627, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. VIII, Kissinger to Nixon, “Military Supply Policy,” 3 November 1971. MEA, WII/109/13/71, vol. II, “Supply of Arms by USA to Pakistan,” n.d. November 1971. MEA, WII/125/112/71, Singh statement, 12 July 1971.
5. POL INDIA-US, Box 2369, Keating to Rogers, 25 September 1971, New Delhi 15268. “Indians are emotional people who frequently over-react in ways Westerners consider immature,” Keating condescendingly wrote.
6. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 171, Haksar to Gandhi, 4 August 1971. Kosygin had visited India several times, but Gandhi had not paid a state visit to the Soviet Union since 1966. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 171, Haksar to Gandhi, 4 August 1971. MEA, HI/1012/57/71, Purushottam to Kaul, 26 August 1971. See NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 170, Haksar to Singh and Kaul, 6 August 1971; NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 280, Kosygin-Dhar meeting, 5 August 1971
7. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 280, Gromyko-Dhar meeting, 3 August 1971. P. N. Dhar, Indira Gandhi, the “Emergency,” and Indian Democracy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 170–71. The treaty was based on a similar one signed between the Soviet Union and Egypt in May 1971 (MEA, HI/1012/5/71, UAR-USSR treaty, 27 May 1971).
8. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 280, Dhar-Gromyko meeting, 4 August 1971. See NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 280, Kosygin-Dhar meeting, 5 August 1971.
9. MEA, HI/1012/57/71, Purushottam to Kaul, 26 August 1971. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 280, Kosygin-Dhar meeting, 5 August 1971.
10. See Anne Applebaum, Gulag: A History (New York: Random House, 2003). On Soviet oppression of eastern and central Europe, see Václav Havel, Open Letters: Selected Writings, 1965–1990, ed. Paul Wilson (New York: Random House, 1992); Adam Michnik, Letters from Prison and Other Essays, trans. Maya Latynski (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985); Timothy Garton Ash, The Uses of Adversity: Essays on the Fate of Central Europe (New York: Random House, 1989); Anne Applebaum, Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe, 1944–1956 (New York: Doubleday, 2012). NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 170, Haksar to Gandhi, 8 August 1971.