by Willis, Sam
17
Billias, Glover, 8.
18
Fischer, Washington’s Crossing, 208.
19
Chernow, Washington, 282–3.
20
Fischer, Washington’s Crossing, 343.
21
Syrett, Shipping, 128.
22
Olton, Artisans, 1.
23
O’Shaughnessy, Men Who Lost America, 18.
24
Quoted in Ketchum, Saratoga, 104.
25
O’Shaughnessy, Men Who Lost America, 112–14; Billias, ‘Burgoyne’, 172; Willcox, ‘Too Many Cooks’, 57. It was only after Burgoyne’s surrender that he complained of a lack of co-operation.
26
Ketchum, Saratoga, 61.
27
Syrett, Shipping, 239.
28
Chernow, Washington, 300.
29
NDAR IX: 336–7, 721, 723.
30
Syrett, Shipping, 230.
31
NDAR IX: 723.
32
O’Shaughnessy, Men Who Lost America, 107.
33
BL: Add 8010/2; Syrett, Shipping, 191.
34
BL: Add 8010/2; NDAR IX: 363; Tilley, British Navy, 106; Moomaw, ‘Captain Hamond’, 319–27.
35
Moomaw, ‘Captain Hamond’, 326.
36
NDAR IX: 327, 354, 363; Tilley, British Navy, 106.
37
Chernow, Washington, 301.
38
O’Shaughnessy, Men Who Lost America, 107.
39
BL: Add 8010/2; NDAR IX: 795.
40
See WCL: Simcoe Papers, ‘General disposition preparative to the landing of the army 24 August 1777’; NDAR IX: 785–8, 793–9.
41
BL: Add 8010/2.
42
NDAR IX: 835, 856–7.
43
Tilley, British Navy, 107.
44
Syrett, American Waters, 80.
45
Jackson, British Army, 12.
46
NDAR IX: 793, 808–9; Chernow, Washington, 301.
47
Quoted in Jackson, British Army, 13.
48
NDAR IX: 793, 960–1.
49
Foy, ‘Ports of Slavery’, 267.
50
Jackson, British Army, 17; T. B. Allen, Tories, 241–3.
51
BL: Add 8010/2.
52
NDAR IX: 972–7. Follow the campaign in Taaffe, Philadelphia Campaign.
53
NDAR IX: 972–7, 984; Dorwart, Fort Mifflin, 31.
54
Walker, Engineers, 150–2, 57–9; Dorwart, Fort Mifflin, 44–9.
55
Moomaw, ‘Captain Hamond’, 117; Jackson, Pennsylvania Navy, 353 ff.
56
Harte, ‘River Obstructions’, 139.
57
Jackson, Pennsylvania Navy, 359.
58
NDAR IX: 91, 107, 110, 294.
59
Fitzpatrick, Washington Writings, IX, 255–6, 259.
60
Syrett, American Waters, 81.
61
Dorwart, Fort Mifflin, 36.
62
Syrett, American Waters, 81.
63
NDAR X: 248; Leach, ‘Hazlewood’, 3–5; Walker, Engineers, 166.
64
NDAR X: 246–50, 260–4; Tilley, British Navy, 114; Moomaw, ‘Captain Hamond’, 363.
65
Dorwart, Fort Mifflin, 41.
66
Syrett, American Waters, 84; Jackson, British Army, 71, 200; Dann, Nagle Journal, 11–12.
67
Dorwart, Fort Mifflin, 41; Jackson, Pennsylvania Navy, 205.
68
NDAR X: 396–7.
69
Bass, Ships and Shipwrecks, 150.
70
NDAR X: 246–54, 260–4.
71
NDAR X: 265, 286–7, 305–8; Jackson, Pennsylvania Navy, 202.
10 British Surrender
1
Baxter, British Invasion, 178.
2
Nelson, Arnold’s Navy, 341.
3
J. Baldwin, Journal, 94; Walker, Engineers, 102.
4
J. Baldwin, Journal, 94.
5
Thacher, Journal, 96.
6
Thacher, Journal, 96; Osler, Exmouth, 25.
7
Walker, Engineers, 104–5.
8
MHS: ‘The Diary of Moses Greenleaf’, 27 April 1777.
9
Mackesy, War for America, 107.
10
Mintz, Generals of Saratoga, 112–13.
11
BL: Add 32413; Mackesy, War for America, 108.
12
NDAR X: 587; Hadden, Journal, 53.
13
Hadden, Journal, 56.
14
Hadden, Journal, 52.
15
NDAR IX: 187; Anburey, ‘Ticonderoga’, 15.
16
O’Shaughnessy, Men Who Lost America, 146.
17
Anburey, ‘Ticonderoga’, 15–17.
18
M. L. Brown, Baroness von Riedesel, 26–7, 31–2; Furneaux, Saratoga, 139.
19
Thorp, Acland Journal, xxviii–xxix, 8, 12, 14, 18.
20
NDAR IX: 174–5; Anburey, ‘Ticonderoga’, 15.
21
Hadden, Journal, 84.
22
Nelson, Arnold’s Navy, 342.
23
Walker, Engineers, 106.
24
BL: Add 32413, f. 48; Thacher, Journal, 102; Preston, Lyon and Batchelor, Navies, 26; Mintz, Generals of Saratoga, 144–6.
25
J. Baldwin, Journal, 109.
26
NDAR IX: 212–13, 284, 349, 594; Hadden, Journal, 80 ff.; Northcote Parkinson, Pellew, 43; Lynn, Specht Journal, 53; Bird, Navies in the Mountains, 239.
27
Hadden, Journal, 89; Lynn, Specht Journal, 54.
28
J. Baldwin, Journal, 110–11.
29
Thacher, Journal, 100; Lynn, Specht Journal, 54; Bird, Navies in the Mountains, 239.
30
NDAR IX: 225.
31
Thacher, Journal, 102.
32
Walker, Engineers, 106.
33
Chernow, Washington, 301.
34
The many balancing factors in Schuyler’s failure can best be followed in Mintz, Generals of Saratoga, 142–4.
35
Hadden, Journal, 96.
36
Hadden, Journal, 94.
37
Billias, ‘Burgoyne’, 177.
38
Hadden, Journal, 106.
39
Pell, ‘Schuyler’, 67.
40
Furneaux, Saratoga, 134.
41
Beatson, Memoirs, IV, 233.
42
NDAR X: 70, 90, 94, 96–9.
43
Harte, ‘River Obstructions’, 176.
44
There has been some very promising underwater survey work undertaken to identify possible wrecks in these locations. Napolitano, ‘Multibeam Acoustics’, 23–4; NDAR X: 47, 57–8, 73.
45
NDAR X: 109, 118.
46
Ketchum, Saratoga, 378; Mintz, Generals of Saratoga, 200.
47
Stone, Visits, 298.
48
NMM: PEL Misc 92/027 f.139.
49
Stone, Visits, 241; Billias, Glover, 132–49; Mintz, Generals of Saratoga, 183, 189, 196–7.
50
Osler, Exmouth, 39.
51
O’Shaughnessy, Men Who Lost America,
219.
52
Many thanks to Mr Robert Bellamy for this observation. NDAR X: 665; NDAR XI: 407–8, 709 and n.
53
NDAR X: 392. This would not have been that much of a surprise. The Thunderer was a very bad sea boat and nearly sank after the battle of Valcour, when her lee boards gave way and she heeled alarmingly. Cometti, Enys Journals, 20; Malcomson, Warships of the Great Lakes, 29.
11 American Sea Power
1
NDAR X: 456–68, 512–14, 549–50; Moomaw, ‘Captain Hamond’, 349 ff.
2
Walker, Engineers, 173–4.
3
NDAR X: 557–9, 653–4: Moomaw, ‘Captain Hamond’, 364; Crawford, ‘Naval Support’, 6.
4
NDAR X: 25, 28 and n., 288, 321; Moomaw, ‘Captain Hamond’, 373.
5
Jackson, British Army, 89.
6
Cobbett, Parliamentary History, XVIII, 1427.
7
Knight, ‘Recovery’, 13.
8
NDAR VIII: 1028; Collins, ‘Whaleboat Warfare’, 197–9.
9
G. W. Allen, Naval History, 231–2.
10
G. W. Allen, Naval History, 239.
11
Alberts, Golden Voyage, 49; Jamieson, ‘Leeward Islands’, 122.
12
Jamieson, ‘American Privateers’, 20.
13
Knight, Pursuit, 44.
14
O’Shaughnessy, Men Who Lost America, 118; Gruber, ‘Lord Howe’, 244; N. Miller, Sea of Glory, 293.
15
For a detailed example, see Crawford, ‘Hawke and the Dove’, 49–66. The Portuguese, Danes and Prussians (until 1779) took a pro-British stance. NDAR VI: 467–8.
16
NDAR VIII: 514, 529, 603, 614–15; Bemis, Diplomacy, 54; Johnston, ‘American Privateers’, 359–61; Dull, Diplomatic History, 80–1; Crawford, ‘Hawke and the Dove’, 64.
17
NDAR IX: 600, 606, 615–16, 634–5; N. Miller, Sea of Glory, 298–9.
18
Syrett, ‘Germain’, 395–405; N. Miller, Sea of Glory, 298–9.
19
Though calculating the figures is fraught with difficulty. Syrett, American Waters, 88; O’Shaughnessy, Men Who Lost America, 332.
20
British exports averaged about 15 per cent less between 1776 and 1782 than between 1772 and 1775, though it is unclear precisely how this is related to the war. Dull, Diplomatic History, 68.
21
NDAR VIII: 282; Hattendorf, Talking about Naval History, 194–5; Fowler, Rebels, 74–7.
22
APDE: Warren to Adams, 7 September 1777.
23
Hattendorf, Talking about Naval History, 196.
24
NDAR VIII: 89 and n., 224; N. Miller, Sea of Glory, 225.
25
MML: ‘Letterbook of Esek Hopkins’, 33–4.
26
NDAR V: 265.
27
NDAR V: 280.
28
NDAR IX: 627, 877–8, 881–2.
29
Syrett, American Waters, 85.
30
Laughton, James Journal, 41.
31
APDE: Warren to Adams, 22 June 1777.
32
APDE: Warren to Adams, 23 March 1777. Manley outranked McNeill, who was abrasive and doubted Manley’s competence.
33
NDAR IX: 47, 51, 85–7, 282–4, 305–6; G. W. Allen, Naval History, 205.
34
P. C. F. Smith, Manley Zeal; held in the collections of the Peabody Essex Museum in Salem, MA.
35
P. C. F. Smith, Manley Zeal, 59.
36
NDAR IX: 226–30, 279–80.
37
APDE: Warren to Adams, 7 September 1777; NDAR IX: 299–300, 307–9, 875.
38
APDE: Gordon to Adams, 5 June 1777.
39
Buel, In Irons, 47.
40
Braake, Posted Letter, F-42.
41
NDAR VII: 677, 777, 780–1, 790–1.
42
Rodger, Insatiable Earl, 235.
43
Bonnichon, ‘Objectifs Français’, 52.
44
Dull, Ship of the Line, 94–5; Dull, ‘Mahan’, 61; Dull, ‘Tragedy’, 81; Baugh, ‘Why did Britain?’, 158, 162. A belief that was not, in fact, widely shared in the British treasury; Mackesy, War for America, 37.
45
Dull, ‘Tragedy’, 94.
46
Knight, ‘Recovery’, 12–14; Dull, Ship of the Line, 101; G. S. Brown, ‘Anglo-French Naval Crisis’, 8; Rodger, Insatiable Earl, 238; Tilley, British Navy, 121.
47
Bemis, Diplomacy, 60–6.
48
Dull, Ship of the Line, 97–8.
49
NDAR IX: 1139; Dull, Ship of the Line, 98; Dull, French Navy, 90; Dull, ‘Tragedy’, 91; Dull, Diplomatic History, 89–92; Dull, Franklin the Diplomat, 23.
50
NDAR X: 667–8, 764n.; NDAR XII: 310; Morton and Spinelli, Beaumarchais, 128, 138.
51
Dull, Benjamin Franklin, 72–6; Mintz, Generals of Saratoga, 234.
12 Bourbon Alliance
1
Ribiero, Dress, 142.
2
Bishop, ‘Rochambeau’, 786–7.
3
Herring, Colony, 22.
4
Conway, ‘Fellow Nationals’, 96.
5
Bishop, ‘Rochambeau’, 786–7.
6
WCL: Abraham Whipple Papers, M-115, 5 July 1778.
7
Morton and Spinelli, Beaumarchais, 167–71, 180, 197.
8
Dexter, Stiles Diary, II, 458.
9
Conway, ‘Fellow Nationals’, 96.
10
TNA: ADM 1/5117/12; Syrett, European Waters, 13; Willcox, ‘Admiral Rodney’, 193–8; Bemis, ‘Secret Service’, 474–95.
11
Rodger, Insatiable Earl, 235; Boudriot, ‘French Fleet’, 79–86.
12
Brunsman, Evil Necessity, 245.
13
Dull, French Navy, 15.
14
For the background context, see Black, European Powers and Black, Necessary Enemies.
15
H. W. Richmond, Statesmen and Seapower, 144; Bonnichon, ‘Objectifs Français’, 49–50.
16
Gillispie, Science and Polity, 51. Lavoisier was guillotined during the Reign of Terror in the summer of 1794. Kelly, Gunpowder, 166, 177.
17
C. L. Lewis, de Grasse, 46.
18
Boudriot, Seventy-Four Gun Ship, IV, 9.
19
Jenkins, French Navy, 149–50.
20
The first book on naval tactics ever published in the English language had only appeared twelve years before war broke out with America. Depeyre, Tactiques et Stratégies, 99–148; O’Bryen, Naval Evolutions.
21
Chernow, Washington, 336.
22
TNA: ADM 1/94, f. 337.
23
TNA: ADM 51/59, 18 June 1778.
24
TNA: ADM 1/94, ff. 375–7.
25
Anon, Maritime Campaign, 6.
26
Syrett, European Waters, 38.
27
Conway, ‘Fellow Nationals’, 97.
28
Conway, ‘Fellow Nationals’, 98.
29
Conway, ‘Fellow Nationals’, 67–8, 94–6; Conway, ‘Politics’, 1200.
13 French Firepower
1
For a charming personal letter revealing this fear, see Macleod, ‘Thinking Minds’, 250; see also Patterson, Other Armada, 39.
2
Dull, French Navy, 108n.5.
3
Goodwin, Nelson’s Ships, 234–5.
4
Goodwin, Nelson’s Ships, 236.
5
Bonner-Smith, Barrington Papers, II, 4.
6
O’Shaughnessy, Men Who Lost America, 48.
7
Knight, ‘Recovery’, 13–14.
8
O’Shaughnessy, Men Who Lost America, 31.