Introducing Psychology

by Carol Ciccarelli

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  Table of Contents

  INTRODUCTION

  History

  Positive Psychology Theory

  Wisdom

  Courage

  Humanity

  Justice

  Temperance

  Transcendence

  Positive Emotions

  Engagement

  Relationship

  Meaning

  Accomplishment

  Exercises and Tools

  Research

  Conclusion

  INTRODUCTION

  Human beings have been on this Earth for many thousands of years and throughout that time on Earth there have been many different human experiments and societies that sought to order the world. This mastery of the environment is a particularly human trait and one not expressed or yet discovered in any other organism. Through the discovery and use of sciences man has sought to understand and control the outside world and himself. Ancient philosophers and scientists tried to define the world in terms of planetary movement and the interaction of the spiritual and physical worlds. As human evolution progressed we moved into towns and cities and civilization began progressing as well. With this increased mastery came ease of life and comfort that could not be experienced by our forebears. It also revealed certain aspects of human life that were not evident in previous iterations of human life. Philosophers and scientists were constantly trying to define the world and attach meaning to it. Often times this was done through a religious lens as thinkers of the time had difficulty escaping the vocabulary of their contemporaries. The first thought of man as something special and apart from nature had religious undertones and if not exactly implicit in the language it was understood to be the case. It is no wonder then that the scientists that came later adopted the language of their predecessors as they continued their study. This did begin to change though as different religions and philosophical thoughts came into contact and competition with each other. Eventually the physical sciences were developed to an extent that identified the reality of our world and man’s place in it. This led to a shift in focus and understanding of the sciences. After this shift, for centuries, the physical world was explored and examined and man’s place in it viewed as just another natural occurrence. Essentially another cog in the wheel of nature. Man could be summed up just as the cosmos could, by cause and effect of a physical nature. The rebellion from religious thought led to a pendulum swing far to the other side of scientific thought in which nothing that could not be observed and counted should not be theorized upon. Not until the contemporary scientists’ understanding of the physical world was taxed and pushed beyond physical explanations was thought given to the unseen aspects of the human mind and body. This shift did not happen quickly or in isolation. Many other disciplines were involved in developing techniques and equipment which led to this shift in focus and development of a new scientific discipline. This new discipline was called psychology and it rested on the foundation of all the sciences that came before it. While psychology would focus on the less than physical aspects of the mind it would not deal with the supernatural or unexplainable. This new science would be an integral member of the scientific community by adopting the methods deemed so important by that community. Psychology would seek to identify what it was to be human in a more than physical sense. Psychology would seek to demystify the previously misunderstood aspects of human beings as the close minded empiricists viewed them. As technology advanced and psychology adopted these changes it would be progressed greatly in the second half of the twentieth century. The study of the human mind and behaviors had become as recognized as any of the hard sciences defined by those practicing Chemistry and Biology. Psychology began to establish its own scientific validity. It became apparent though that psychology was focused on inefficiencies. Disabilities and mental illnesses were the focus of these early psychologists because they lacked the ability to define the normal human, much less the thriving human. Instead, focusing on the human experiencing difficulty led to the development of theories that sought to define the normal human experience. This was the way and method of psychology as a professional science until the middle of the twentieth century. After conducting research along the standard lines of inquiry a set of psychologists developed a theory. This theory led to the development of an approach to the treatment and definition of mental health. This new approach would come to be called Positive psychology and lead to an amazing number of scientific studies and insights. This new science would not focus on problems or illnesses but rather on healthy human minds and experiences. In the several decades that this new psychology has been studied and followed there have been many discoveries and studies that contribute to the overall efficacy of psychological literature. Many have characterized this particular focus amongst specialists as an ignoring of the difficult issues and problems that face the human psyche. The practitioners of this branch of psychology though, would caution against that line of thinking. Positive psychology is not attempting to dissuade the experimenting on and discovering of solutions to mental illness. Instead this new psychology simply asks that there be an even amount of time and effort spent on improving goodness and correcting illness. In fact, as shall be illustrated later, it is important to study the deficiencies and problems the human mind faces in order to discover what treatments or activities can be beneficial to those conditions as well as improving the well-being without those conditions. As this new psychology gained traction and became recognized as valid in the scientific community there was and has been more detailed research into the utilization of the ideas put forth. Emotions and motivations were given strict definitions and were even broken down into the constituent parts allowing the study of each and their influences. Further study and even meta-studies revealed the efficacy of these definitions and even better ways to put them into action in everyday life. This book is an attempt to chronicle the advancement of psychology as a science as Positive psychology as a discipline within it. Positive psychology is focused on increasing well-being and enjoyment of life and is one of the more recent disciplines within psychology. The findings of the basic research that established the foundations of Positive psychology will be discussed and defined. The benefits of this new science though cannot be truly understo
od until they are put into effect. That is why this book will also cover several methods for increasing well-being and engagement in life. All of the health and psychological benefits of Positive psychology are cataloged and exercises associated with are provided. It is the sincere Hope that after this experience one will understand how to speak about their happiness and discover several tools to help in achieving and living the good life. The history and theory of psychology is essential to understanding the fundamentals that the new psychology to build a flourishing life are built. Once the past of the discipline is exposed and understands the modern underpinnings can be examined in more detail. Understanding the building blocks on a flourishing life enable a person to identify areas where they need to build and also help to illuminate those strengths we naturally excel in. Applying this new knowledge is the purpose of this entire exercise and so must also be discussed. While there are many ways to incorporate the learnings of scientists they cannot all be covered in a single document. Instead we will look at some the most widely recognized and accepted tools and exercises to evaluate and incorporate strengths in life and begin thriving.

  History

  Although psychology as a scientific pursuit is a young one, many cultures from the past have thought about the mind. Of course, in the language of the day it might have been called the spirit or the heart or soul of a person. Even as the pyramids were being built there was discussion about man’s brain and its function and ailments. In a document called the Edwin Smith Papyrus, for instance, there are descriptions of the brain and guesses as to what its function may have been. Later, in classical antiquity, Greek philosophers postulated endlessly about the human condition. All throughout the Greek city-states different philosophies were applied to daily life, Stoics and Epicureans among them. Much of the thought of this era was focused on what is called the mind-body problem. This dichotomy led philosophers to think about the root of mental functions such as thought and dreaming. Though this took place long before the scientific revolution, there was also exploration into the physical functioning of the brain. One of the earliest “physicians”, in fact, was the first to postulate that mental issues had a physiological source. This same Roman, known as Galen, also promoted an ancient theory of human behavior and mood. He believed behavior and mood, like mental disorders and illnesses, had a physiological basis. His theory, however, was based on ancient understanding of anatomy and biology. This way of thinking would last for several hundred years. Man’s psyche would be thought of as ephemeral as the soul and thought about by philosophers and religious thinkers. Christian philosophers and later Muslim philosophers would develop their own systems for the human mind. They would also develop their own standards of behavior and pattern of thought to keep the mind healthy. Again, these behaviors and patterns would have been codified as religious language until much later. Even as the fledgling understanding of the human mind was hidden behind a religious veil there was still an attempt to understand the physical brain.

  The aforementioned Galen, though prohibited from dissecting human cadavers, worked with monkey and pig carcasses to gain an understanding of physiology. Later physicians would have no such prohibition and would make strides toward identifying and treating many psychological issues. Not only were these early scientists worried about the questions of consciousness and depression, but also more mundane issues such as the senses, emotions, and nightmares. It was during these very early years that the foundation of future schools of thought were laid. The Roman physician Galen’s ancient idea of bodily fluids needing to be balanced, based upon even more ancient thought, was reinforced by the Muslim physicians that followed him. This thinking about humors ruling human thought and behavior lasted through the middle ages and into the Enlightenment.

  It was during the Enlightenment that the philosophy of the mind was taken out of a religious context. Philosophers were now thinking without the framework of a particular religious belief. Though they were still not able to explain the mechanisms of the body and mind, they were ready to attribute them to natural rather than mystical means. Human consciousness was still thought in terms of the soul but not bound by theology, and some were even beginning to think of the “soul” as a product of brain function. It was during this time of philosophical competition, made possible by the printing press and Reformation, that one of the most important contributions to science was developed.

  The scientific method was gradually being accepted by the thinkers of the 16th and 17th centuries. It was during this time that the thinkers of the world were shifting their ways of thinking. As mentioned before, in Ancient Egypt through Antiquity and the middle ages scientific thought was done by examining what was known to understand it further. After this time the scientific community would no longer operate off of assumptions made by previous thinkers. Now they would use the powerful scientific method, capable of asking and answering questions with certainty. Of course, this was still a new tool and in the hands of inexperienced operators. Many interesting sciences were developed to explain the human mind and its myriad behaviors and misbehaviors. One of these sciences purported to be able to determine someone’s personality traits by feeling the shape of their skull. Supposedly the skull would reflect the shape of the brain, and various parts of the brain were corresponded to states of mind, virtues and vices, proclivities, and behaviors. There was also significant interest in hypnosis and magnets and their influence on the human mind. Soon though the scientific method would wear down the theories that were not sound and lead to the development of the modern science of psychology. No longer would philosophical thought determine the course of research and dictate solutions. Now the scientific method, along with math, would provide quantifiable results. The ability of the human mind would be tested on every level. Not only that, but the human mind would be mapped along with the body. Sensory nerves and motor nerves were discovered to be separate and unique. Electrical inputs and outputs of the brain were now able to be measured in response to different stimuli and quantified. Parts of the brain were identified by use and given names that persist to this day. But the physical exploration of the human mind and body was not the only way psychology was being progressed in the 1800’s.

  This was also the time that psychoanalysis was being developed. This study focused on the human subconscious and has been hugely influential to future psychologists. Though the conclusions at the time have proven to be of little value, the techniques and discoveries made have significance to this day. In fact, psychoanalysis is the historical basis for the proverbial therapist couch. The first experimental laboratory for psychological studies was established in Germany and soon spread across the continent and the Atlantic Ocean. It was only after the advent of these laboratories that modern psychology can truly said to have begun. For the first time modern scientific thought would be combined with significant funding and modern technology and huge strides would be made. The first academic journals on psychology were published shortly after the first laboratories. Now experiments and their conclusions could be shared, peer reviewed, and replicated. Replication, of course, being the most important aspect of any experiment. It was also around this time that the first professional association for psychology was founded. In its first iteration however, philosophers were invited to be members. The modern experimental psychologist took issue with those with a more philosophical approach to the burgeoning science of psychology. Eventually the hard science proponents won out and those of philosophical bent had to start their own association. Now psychology was free from all of its historical ties to philosophical and metaphysical thought. Experiments were being performed in several experimental labs in universities around the world. Publications were in circulation spreading the theories and conclusions of research to all those involved in the profession.

  It was at this time in the development of the science that schism developed amongst its practitioners. These two schools of thought are distinct only in their approach to the studying of the human mi
nd and its behaviors. One approach, dubbed Structuralism, sought to understand the mind as a collection of its constituent pieces. These psychologists sought to understand the underlying structures of the mind and how they interact. Not only that, but the structures and their responses and interactions were tied to events in the real world. As a part of this approach, psychologists utilize techniques associated with psychoanalysis that others deem lacking in scientific rigor. Many of these practitioners used patients reporting how they felt about experiences and the interpreted these emotions and the corresponding structures in the brain. The other school of thought, Functionalism, disapproved of the trained introspection used by Structuralism. Additionally, Functionalists were more concerned with how the mind was supposed to operate not how the patients felt about it. This was a new divide in psychology and illustrated the last hurdle the science needed to overcome. If psychologists wished their science to be taken seriously, they had to remove all aspects of the metaphysical. At the heart of this debate was the use of human intuition in psychological sciences. This is because the use of human intuition was not replicable in an experimental environment. If experiments were to be performed and their theories supported by the data human intuition could not be part of the equation. This schism did not last long however. The majority of practitioners sought validity and recognition in their field and so had to provide repeatable results. And while intuition may be used in determining a cause or course of treatment, the data would determine if the cause or course were valid. This movement from belief to thought happened in every aspect of life throughout the entirety of human history. At the same time psychology was becoming a finely tuned instrument, so too were chemistry, biology, even physics. As these adjacent sciences progressed, refining observations and calculations, so too did psychology. These new understandings and observations of the world around us also helped the divorce from religious thinking in science. With the removal of an answer provided by faith these early explorers were forced to find it in the world around them. As new and more advanced tools were produced deeper questions were asked and more robust explanations sought. Researchers would no longer satisfy themselves with an answer they could not quantify. Furthermore, the scientific community at large was in constant contact, and they would not accept any result they could not reproduce. And as experiments revealed more about human behavior, and these experiments were replicated, their findings were beginning to be applied. Prior to this time the study of the mind and body was an attempt to understand, a throwback to its philosophical roots. Structuralism fell out of fashion as a research approach. The new and ever branching schools of psychological began to focus on repeatable results. As a result Functionalism was adopted as the research approach of experimental laboratories. Just as Functionalism sought to understand the workings of the mind, Behaviorism sought to understand the behaviors. The concept of the brain as controlling or responsible for a majority of behaviors was firmly taken hold of. The effort to identify the behaviors of a person’s body with the functioning of the brain was most important. This approach was a combination of all preceding schools of thought without any intuition. Only events that could be observed and attributed a cause would be quantified. Revolutionary experiments from Pavlov, Skinner, and others firmly rooted Behaviorism as the de facto psychological approach of the early 1900s.