Engineers of Dreams: Great Bridge Builders and the Spanning of America
Page 49
As new materials, computational techniques, and generations of engineers come to dominate the world of bridge building, as they will especially the projects involving the greatest technical challenges, there will necessarily come to the fore competitions and disagreements among designs and their designers. This is to be expected in any creative endeavor; we should not be surprised that it is heightened in bridge building, which is among the most visible, symbolic, and evocative of all interactions between engineer and engineer, and between engineers and society. Artists and architects may challenge the engineer, but ultimately only the engineer will be able to cantilever out over technically uncharted waters to build bridges greater than any before. Though knowledge of structural principles is of course essential in such an endeavor, a sense of history provides the judgment for engineers to dream effectively beyond the present. Even if dreams come easily to dreamers, bringing a dream to reality takes a view that is firmly founded on experience of what can and cannot be done technically, plus a confidence in what is humanly and economically possible at a given time. Both of these qualities may be necessary to achieve greatness in bridge building, yet they alone seem not to be sufficient to bring a particular dream to reality. There appears to be, as Ammann saw it, a certain element of luck involved in the enterprise.
Whether designed by engineer or architect, artist or Boy Scout, every bridge is a legacy to its environs and to its users. The environment itself, especially when it is cruel by geography or polluted by society, cannot be expected to be any more respectful of a bridge than it is of an automobile or an endangered species. The society of users, who are in fact willy-nilly the stewards of the world’s bridges and of the greater infrastructure, must recognize that every artifact that has been or ever will be created, whether in now traditional steel and concrete or in the composites of the future, must be maintained as well as used. By understanding this and the origins of our bridges and other artifacts of civilization, and the humanness of those who once dreamed of what we now so often take for granted, we not only engage ourselves in the technosocial endeavor that involves engineers at its core, but we also understand how their human natures and their dreams affect the way we experience our cities and towns, our borders, and our open spaces.
NOTES
Reference notes are keyed to phrases and quotes on the text pages indicated. Where successive quotes and information have come from the same source, only the first or the most prominent occurrence is referenced. Full bibliographical citations for articles and books identified only by author, or, where multiple works by an author are cited, by author and year, are given in the bibliography following these notes.
Biographical information, especially for less well-known engineers, is not always readily available or conveniently indexed. Among the most extensive sources of personal information on engineers are the biographical dictionaries of the American Society of Civil Engineers and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. The most readily available information on the lives and careers of deceased members of the ASCE, to which virtually all bridge engineers discussed in this book belonged, is often in the memoirs published in that society’s Transactions. These memoirs were generally written by associates and published several years after obituaries. So that the memoirs most relevant to this book can be more readily identified, they have all been grouped in the bibliography under the entry “Memoirs of Deceased Members,” and there alphabetically by subject. References to such entries are indicated by the notation “Memoir” in the notes. Where biographical material is not referenced, its source is the two volumes of A Biographical Dictionary of American Civil Engineers.
The following abbreviations are used in the notes:
ASCE = American Society of Civil Engineers
ASME = American Society of Mechanical Engineers
BDACE = A Biographical Dictionary of American Civil Engineers
DAB = Dictionary of American Biography
EN = Engineering News
ENR = Engineering News-Record
NYT = The New York Times
TASCE = Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers
Chapter 1 Imagine
1. The earliest bridges: see, e.g., Steinman and Watson, ch. 2; cf. Tyrrell (1912), ch. 1; Waddell (1916), ch. 1.
2. Homer: Waddell (1916), p. 11.
3. Persian kings: ibid.
4. Herodotus: ibid., p. 5.
5. China, northern India: Steinman and Watson (rev. ed., 1957), p. 17.
6. Middle Ages: see ibid., ch. 4, esp. pp. 53–54.
7. Altopascio Order: ibid., p. 54.
8. “were nicked”: ibid.
9. Frères Pontiffes: ibid.
10. Palladio: Palladio, third bk., chs. V-IX; cf. Waddell (1916), pp. 11–12.
11. brothers Grubenmann: Waddell (1916), p. 12.
12. Squire Whipple: BDACE, vol. II; “Memoir.”
13. “father of American bridge building”: BDACE, vol. II.
14. President Eliphalet Nott: Reynolds, p. 475.
15. Rensselaer: ibid., p. 466.
16. Whipple patented: U.S. Patent No. 2,064.
17. Statue of Liberty: Hawkes, p. 76.
18. one out of every five: Secretary of Transportation, p. 5.
Chapter 2 Eads
1. James Buchanan Eads: see esp. Dorsey; Steinman and Watson, ch. 10; Vollmar; Yager.
2. Young James: S. R. Watson and Watson, p. 107; Morgan, p. 92; Popular Science Monthly, Feb. 1886, p. 545.
4. “This is going to be”: S. R. Watson and Watson, p. 108.
5. a fire broke out: Jacobs and Neville, p. 58.
6. a Barrett Williams: Yager, p. 17.
7. read at will: Popular Science Monthly, Feb. 1886, p. 545.
8. West Point: Grayson, pp. 18, 22.
9. Franklin Institute: ibid., p. 24.
10. engineering schools: Grayson, pp. 24–30.
11. “the last patroon”: National Cyclopaedia of American Biography, vol. II, p. 397.
12. Rensselaer Institute: Grayson, p. 28; see also Reynolds, pp. 466–67.
13. “many of the fledgling”: Schodek, p. 13.
14. Loammi Baldwin: BDACE, vol. I; see also Ford, pp. 278–80; Schodek, pp. 340–2.
15. “learned engineering”: Ford, p. 278, with the name spelled Laommi. “who would become”: Ford, p. 279.
16. insurance underwriters: Scott and Miller, p. 71.
17. five hundred explorations: ibid.
18. Future snag boats: Popular Science Monthly, Feb. 1886, pp. 545–46.
19. “I had occasion”: Eads (1868), p. 21; see also Woodward, p. 3.
20. “most powerful”: Baxter, p. 244.
21. “the St. Louis”: quoted in S. R. Watson and Watson, p. 111; see also Baxter, pp. 242–44; Popular Science Monthly, Feb. 1886, pp. 547–48.
22. outlining a proposal: Woodward, p. 7.
23. Charles Ellet, Jr.: see Lewis.
24. “Mr. Ellet promises”: quoted in Woodward, p. 7.
25. “The time is inauspicious”: ibid., p. 9.
26. Britannia Bridge: see Clark, vol. II, p. 815.
27. “comparative merits”: J. A. Roebling (1841), p. 193.
28. “become indispensably”: quoted in Woodward, p. 10.
29. “much thought”: Homer, p. 10.
30. a tunnel under the river: Woodward, pp. 10–11.
31. “charging that bridges”: Scott and Miller, p. 77; see also Kutler.
32. “it cost nearly half”: Scott and Miller, p. 77.
33. geography had been undone: ibid., p. 78.
34. “the future Great City”: ibid., p. 78.
35. “the datum plane”: Kouwenhoven (1982), p. 542.
36. Lucius boomer: Scott and Miller, p. 79.
37. Simeon S. Post: see BDACE, vol. I; U.S. Patent No. 38,910. “most beautiful contrivance”: Palladio, p. 66.
38. “mathematical bridges”: see, e.g., Labrum, ed., pp. 100–101.
39. “not produce in
jurious effects”: U.S. Patent No. 38,190.
40. “measured in the center”: Kouwenhoven (1982), p. 542.
41. A convention of civil engineers: see Eads (1868), p. 37.
42. “some ‘engineering precedent’ ”: ibid., p. 41.
43. “In view of the great importance”: ibid., p. 3.
44. “Mr. Boomer’s bridge”: ibid., p. 5.
45. “needlessly extravagant”: ibid., p. 10.
46. “If the upper member”: ibid., p. 11.
47. “every known method”: ibid., p. 17.
48. “bow-string girder”: ibid., p. 12.
49. “catenary or suspended arch”: ibid., p. 17.
50. upright versus suspended arch: ibid., pp. 48–57.
51. cast steel: ibid., p. 57.
52. several patents: see U.S. Patents No. 83,942; 89,745; 95,784; 132,271; 142,378; 142,379; 142,380; 142,381; 144,519.
53. Henry Flad: BDACE, vol. I.
54. Charles Pfeiffer: Scott and Miller, p. 82; cf. Eads (1868), p. 4. Though Scott and Miller use the spelling “Pfeifer,” as does Eads in this particular source, the predominant spelling is followed here. See, e.g., Eads (1884), p. 44.
55. “based his first”: Scott and Miller, p. 90.
56. “improvement in arch bridges”: U.S. Patent No. 95,784.
57. Flad was issued a patent: U.S. Patent No. 132,271.
58. “After careful revisions”: Eads (1868), p. 4.
59. “I cannot consent”: quoted in Scott and Miller, p. 67.
60. pneumatic caisson: ibid., p. 189; see also Steinman and Watson, pp. 185–86.
61. “a visit”: Reavis, p. 10.
62. “For a while”: ibid., p. 11.
63. sixty-six feet: Eads (1884), p. 557.
64. “where all things”: Reavis, p. 10.
65. In March 1870: see, e.g., Scott and Miller, pp. 106–7.
66. Brooklyn Bridge: D. McCullough (1972), p. 298.
67. John Roebling’s bridge: ibid., pp. 90–92.
68. Roebling’s son: ibid., p. 157.
69. went to Europe: ibid., pp. 165–67.
70. “cassoons”: ibid., p. 167.
71. “correct some statements”: Engineering, May 16, 1873, p. 337; see also Engineering, June 27, 1873, p. 458; Sept. 5, 1873, pp. 195–96; D. McCullough (1972), pp. 344–47.
72. “the first practical”: quoted by Eads in Engineering, May 16, 1873, p. 337.
73. “I trust I shall not”: Engineering, May 16, 1873, p. 337; see also Eads (1884), p. 68.
74. Francis Collingwood, Jr.: see, e.g., D. McCullough (1972), pp. 145, 374.
75. Collingwood Prize: see ASCE Official Register.
76. “The arches”: Eads (1868), p. 33.
77. Piper & Schiffler: Keystone Bridge Company, p. 7; quotations from Carnegie, p. 116, which puts the date at 1862.
78. “proud of having”: Carnegie, p. 117.
79. “did not leave”: ibid., p. 45.
80. “unusual character”: ibid., p. 119.
81. “not stand up”: quoted in ibid., p. 120.
82. “was seemingly one”: ibid., p. 120.
83. “Must we admit”: Eads (1868), p. 44.
84. “first large”: Carnegie, p. 155.
85. John Piper: ibid., p. 120.
86. meet the specifications: see, e.g., Scott and Miller, pp. 95–96, 109–10.
87. First gentleman: Steinman and Watson, pp. 181–82.
88. Linville proposed: Keystone Bridge Company, p. 16.
89. By the end of the summer: Steinman and Watson, pp. 201–5; cf. Scott and Miller, pp. 124–28.
90. fourteen heavy locomotives: Kouwenhoven (1974), p. 175.
91. discovered by Marquette: Yager, p. 81.
92. “Yon graceful forms”: Eads (1884), p. 42.
93. “Everything which prudence”: ibid., p. 43.
94. Among those individuals: ibid., p. 44.
95. fireworks: Kouwenhoven (1974), pp. 178–80, figs. 5, 8; see also Scott and Miller, p. 130.
96. went bankrupt: Kouwenhoven (1974), p. 180.
97. official name: ibid., pp. 159–60.
98. “conducted principally”: Morgan, p. 120.
99. Arthur E. Morgan: see, e.g., Current Biography, 1956.
100. before there was a law: Morgan, p. 96.
101. “flamboyant in their gaudy paint”: Scott and Miller, p. 125.
102. “drop the case”: quoted in Morgan, p. 113; see also Scott and Miller, pp. 125–26.
103. “bible”: Morgan, p. 78. system of jetties: ibid., pp. 131–32.
104. retrospective scrutiny: ibid., p. 151.
105. Board of Army Engineers: ibid., pp. 133–37.
106. “in a narrow executive capacity”: quoted in ibid., pp. 140–41.
107. lengthy review: Eads (1884), pp. 304–29.
108. total bill: Morgan, p. 142.
109. final legislation: ibid., pp. 142–49.
110. “If the profession”: Eads (1884), p. 48.
111. “the most difficult piece”: quoted in Vollmar, p. 20.
112. thirty feet: Morgan, p. 167; cf. Vollmar, p. 21, which puts the depth at thirty-one feet when the jetties were completed in July 1879.
113. “the savings on transportation”: Vollmar, p. 21.
114. “The key-note”: Eads (1884), p. 53.
115. “directing the great sources”: quoted in, e.g., J. G. Watson, p. 9.
116. “Le Grand Français”: D. McCullough, p. 56.
117. “The question”: Eads (1884), pp. 411–12.
Chapter 3 Cooper
1. Theodore Cooper: “Memoir.”
2. Hoosac Tunnel: see Jacobs and Neville, pp. 36–51.
3. in the navy: “Memoir,” p. 828.
4. “tripped on an unbalanced plank”: Woodward, p. 184.
5. “He was conscious”: ibid., p. 185.
6. found another tube broken: ibid., p. 190.
7. Cooper moved about: “Memoir,” p. 829; see also D. McCullough (1972), p. 341.
8. Tay Bridge: see, e.g., Koerte; Paxton, ed.; Prebble.
9. east coast of Scotland: Koerte, p. 21.
10. Scottish firths: ibid., p. 18; Paxton, ed., pp. 25–26.
11. Stockton & Darlington Railway: Straub, pp. 167–68.
12. Bouch went to Scotland: Prebble, p. 20.
13. “the most insane idea”: quoted in Koerte, p. 21.
14. “The tremendous impetus”: Prebble, p. 24.
15. “[T]he simple reason”: ibid., p. 20.
16. “after some twenty years”: ibid., p. 36.
17. At Dundee: Shipway (1989), p. 1089.
18. foundations: ibid., p. 1092.
19. “Q: Sir Thomas”: quoted in Koerte, pp. 103–4.
20. “for very limited surfaces”: Prebble, p. 202.
21. “the fall of the bridge”: quoted in Shipway (1989), p. 1096.
22. “beeswax, fiddler’s rosin”: Prebble, p. 193.
23. “no absolute knowledge”: quoted in Prebble, p. 212.
24. “We find that”: quoted in Koerte, p. 108.
25. suspension bridge: Shipway, in Paxton, ed., p. 44.
26. new Tay Bridge: Chrimes, p. 135.
27. Barlow, Son & Baker: Shipway (1989), p. 1097.
28. “The massive character”: reproduced in ibid., p. 1100.
29. The stumps: Koerte, pp. 108–9.
30. consulting engineers: see, e.g., Koerte, p. 134.
31. John Fowler: see Westhofen, pp. 276–81.
32. “major schemes”: Chrimes, p. 135.
33. Benjamin Baker: McBeth, p. 95; see also biographical sketch in Westhofen, p. 281.
34. “should be well enough”: B. Baker (1887), p. 142.
35. Gerber bridge: see Shipway, in Paxton, ed., and Shipway (1990), for illustrations of Gerber and related bridges.
36. Cincinnati Southern Railway: Jackson, p. 174.
37. Charles Shaler Smith: BDACE, vol. II.
38. Charles Conrad Schneider
: ibid.
39. Octave Chanute: ibid., vol. I; see also “Memoir,” p. 1665.
40. “Canti-lever Bridge”: Spanning Niagara, p. 17.
41. “This is a question”: EN, Nov. 5, 1887, p. 335.
42. “ ‘How are you getting on’ ”: B. Baker (1887), p. 116.
43. “between England and Scotland”: Scientific American, Feb. 4, 1888, p. 70.
44. “To get an idea”: B. Baker (1887), p. 116.
45. The image of the bridge: Mackay (1990b), pp. 8–9.
46. “Indeed, I have evidence”: B. Baker (1887), p. 116.
47. “The best evidence”: ibid.
48. “was invited”: Mackay (1990b), p. 16.
49. “ingenious illustration”: EN, June 11, 1887, p. 385.
50. “Each semi-arc”: quoted in B. Baker (1887), p. 238.
51. “no deaths”: ibid., pp. 170–71.
52. “Happily there is”: ibid., p. 238.
53. Construction of the Forth Bridge: Birse, in Paxton, ed., pp. 128–29.
54. “may by its freedom”: Westhofen, p. 218.
55. steel in British bridges: Birse, in Paxton, ed., pp. 126–28.
56. Clyde Rivet Company: ibid., p. 128.
57. “You can fold”: B. Baker (1887), p. 210.
58. certainly was stiff: Shipway, in Paxton, ed., p. 62.
59. “straddle legged”: Shipway (1990), p. 1097.
60. “Holbein straddle”: ibid.
61. “the ‘cantilever fever’ ”: EN, April 7, 1888, p. 270.
62. “it was useless to criticise”: EN, Dec. 28, 1889, p. 616.
63. “there would never be”: quoted in ibid.