The Silver Eagle

by Ben Kane

  contubernium (pl. contubernia): a group of eight legionaries who shared a tent or barracks room and who cooked and ate together.

  corona muralis: a prestigious silver or gold award given to the first soldier to gain entry into a town under siege; other awards included the corona vallaris for similar success against an enemy encampment, and the corona civica, made of oak leaves, given for the saving of another citizen’s life.

  denarius (pl. denarii): the staple coin of the Roman Republic. Made from silver, it was worth four sestertii, or ten asses (later sixteen). The less common gold aureus was worth twenty-five denarii.

  dolia (sing. dolium): giant earthenware jars that were buried in the ground and used for storage of liquids such as oil or wine, and solids like grain or fruit.

  domus: a wealthy Roman’s home. Typically it faced inwards, presenting a blank wall to the outside world. Built in a long, rectangular shape, the domus possessed two inner light sources, the atrium at the front and the colonnaded garden to the rear. These were separated by the large reception area of the tablinum. Around the atrium were bedrooms, offices, store-rooms and shrines to a family’s ancestors, while the chambers around the garden were often banqueting halls and further reception areas.

  equites: the ‘knights’ or equestrian class were originally the citizens who could afford to equip themselves as cavalrymen in the early Roman army. By late Republican times the title was defunct, but it had been adopted by those who occupied the class just below that of the senators.

  Fortuna: the goddess of luck and good fortune. Like all deities, she was notoriously fickle.

  fossae (sing. fossa): defensive ditches, which were dug out around all Roman camps, whether temporary or permanent. They varied in number, width and depth depending on the type of camp and the degree of danger to the legion.

  fugitivarius (pl. fugitivarii): slave-catchers, men who made a living from tracking down and capturing runaways. The punishment described in The Silver Eagle, of branding the letter ‘F’ (for fugitivus) on the forehead, is documented; so is the wearing of permanent neck chains which had directions on how to return the slave to their owner.

  garum: an extremely popular sauce in Roman times, it was made by fermenting a fatty fish in brine and adding other ingredients such as wine, herbs and spices. Garum factories have been found in Pompeii, and soldiers on Hadrian’s Wall ordered and ate it as well. Some modern authors compare garum to Worcestershire sauce, which has anchovies in it.

  gladius (pl. gladii): little information remains about the ‘Spanish’ sword of the Republican army, the gladius hispaniensis, with its waisted blade. I have therefore used the ‘Pompeii’ variation of the gladius as it is the shape most people are familiar with. This was a short – 420–500 mm (16.5–20 in) – straight-edged sword with a ‘V’-shaped point. About 42–55 mm (1.6–2.2 in) wide, it was an extremely well-balanced weapon for both cutting and thrusting. The shaped hilt was made of bone and protected by a pommel and guard of wood. The gladius was worn on the right, except by centurions and other senior officers, who wore it on the left. It was actually quite easy to draw with the right hand, and was probably positioned like this to avoid entanglement with the scutum while being unsheathed.

  haruspex (pl. haruspices): a soothsayer. A man trained to divine in many ways, from the inspection of animal entrails to the shapes of clouds and the way birds fly. As the perceived source of blood, and therefore life itself, the liver was particularly valued for its divinatory possibilities. In addition, many natural phenomena – thunder, lightning, wind – could be used to interpret the present, past and future. The bronze liver mentioned in the book really exists; it was found in a field at Piacenza, Italy in 1877.

  homa: the sacred liquid drunk by members of various eastern religions such as Jainism. It was common practice for devotees in ancient times to take hallucinogenic substances when worshipping their gods. With secret rituals and rites of passage, it is not unreasonable to think that those who practised Mithraicism did the same.

  intervallum: the wide, flat area inside the walls of a Roman camp or fort. As well as serving to protect the barrack buildings from enemy missiles, it could when necessary allow the massing of troops before battle.

  Juno: sister and wife of Jupiter, she was the goddess of marriage and women.

  Jupiter: often referred to as ‘Optimus Maximus’ – ‘Greatest and Best’. Most powerful of the Roman gods, he was responsible for weather, especially storms. Jupiter was the brother as well as the husband of Juno.

  lacerna (pl. lacernae): originally a military cloak, it was usually a dark colour. Made of dyed wool, it was lightweight, open-sided and had a hood.

  lanista (pl. lanistae): a gladiator trainer, often the owner of a ludus, a gladiator school.

  latifundium (pl. latifundia): a large estate, usually owned by Roman nobility, and which utilised large numbers of slaves as labour. The origin of the latifundium was during the second century BC, when vast areas of land were confiscated from Italian peoples defeated by Rome, such as the Samnites.

  legate: the officer in command of a legion, and a man of senatorial rank. In the late Roman Republic, legates were still appointed by generals such as Caesar from the ranks of their family, friends and political allies.

  liburnian: a faster and smaller ship than the trireme, the liburnian was adapted by the Romans from its origins with the Liburnian people of Illyricum (modern-day Croatia). With two banks of oars, it was a bireme rather than a trireme. It was powered by sail, by oars or by a combination of both.

  licium: linen loincloth worn by nobles. It is likely that all classes wore a variant of this: unlike the Greeks, the Romans did not believe in unnecessary public nudity.

  lictor (pl. lictores): a magistrates’ enforcer. Only strongly built citizens could apply for this job, essentially the bodyguards for the consuls, praetors and other senior Roman magistrates. Such officials were accompanied at all times in public by set numbers of lictores (the number depended on their rank). Each lictor carried a fasces, the symbol of justice: a bundle of rods enclosing an axe. Other duties included the arresting and punishment of wrongdoers.

  ludus (pl. ludi): a gladiator school.

  manica (pl. manicae): an arm guard used by gladiators. It was usually made of layered materials such as durable linen and leather, or metal.

  mantar: a Turkish word meaning ‘mould’. I have taken advantage of its exotic sound to use it as a word for the penicillin powder that Tarquinius uses on Pacorus.

  manumission: during the Republic, the act of freeing a slave was actually quite complex. It was usually done in one of three ways: by claim to the praetor, during the sacrifices of the five yearly lustrum, or by a testamentary clause. A slave could not be freed until at least the age of thirty and continued to owe some formal service to their former master after manumission. During the empire, the process was made much simpler. It became possible to grant manumission verbally at a feast, using the guests as witnesses.

  Mars: the god of war. All spoils of war were consecrated to him, and no Roman commander would go on campaign without having visited the temple of Mars to ask for the god’s protection and blessing.

  Minerva: the goddess of war and also of wisdom.

  Mithraeum (pl. Mithraea): the underground temples built by devotees of Mithras. The internal layout described in the novel is accurate. Examples can be found from Rome (there is one in the basement of a church just five minutes’ walk from the Coliseum) to Hadrian’s Wall (Carrawburgh, among others).

  Mithras: originally a Persian god, he was born on the winter solstice, in a cave. He wore a Phrygian blunt-peaked hat and was associated with the sun, hence the name Sol Invictus: ‘Unconquered Sun’. With the help of various creatures, he sacrificed a bull, which gave rise to life on earth – a creation myth. The sharing of wine and bread, as well as the shaking of hands were all possibly initially Mithraic rituals. Unfortunately we know little about the religion, except that there were various leve
ls of devotion, with rites of passage being required between them. A mosaic in a Mithraeum at Ostia reveals fascinating snippets about the seven levels of initiate. With its tenets of courage, strength and endurance, Mithraicism was very popular among the Roman military, especially during the Empire. Latterly the secretive religion came into conflict with Christianity, and it was being actively suppressed by the fourth century AD.

  mulsum: a drink made by mixing four parts wine and one part honey. It was commonly drunk before meals and with the lighter courses during them.

  murmillo (pl. murmillones): one of the most familiar types of gladiator. The bronze, crested helmet was very distinctive, with a broad brim, a bulging face-plate and grillwork eyeholes. The crest was often fitted with groups of feathers, and may also have been fashioned in a fish shape. The murmillo wore a manica on the right arm and a greave on the left leg; like the legionary, he carried a heavy rectangular shield and was armed with a gladius. His only garments were the subligaria, an intricately folded linen undercloth, and the balteus, a wide, protective belt. In Republican times, the most common opponent for the murmillo was the secutor, although later on this became the retiarius.

  olibanum: frankincense, an aromatic resin used in incense as well as perfume. Highly valued in ancient times, the best olibanum was reportedly grown in modern-day Oman, Yemen and Somalia. For obvious reasons, I have not used today’s name as it refers to the Franks who reintroduced it to Europe in the Middle Ages.

  Optimates: an historical but informal faction in the Senate. Its members were dedicated to maintaining the honourable traditions and standards of the Roman Republic, while its main opponent, the Populares group, stood more for what the people wanted. At the time of The Silver Eagle, the most prominent member of the Optimates was Cato, who had been harbouring ill-feeling towards Caesar since 59 BC. Then a consul, Caesar had acted illegally by using physical force to further his cause. Damningly, he had also founded the triumvirate which took nearly all the power from the Senate and placed it in the hands of just three men. Then he had taken it upon himself to conquer Gaul, making himself incredibly wealthy. In the process, Caesar formed the largest and most battle-hardened army Rome had ever seen, one which was loyal only to him. Attempts by the Optimates to recall Caesar prematurely from Gaul were unsuccessful, but then a successful charge of corruption against Gabinius (see the final chapter, set in Alexandria), the acting governor of Syria, gave them heart. But without an army to back them up, the Optimates had little real power to force Caesar into a court. After making a deal with Pompey to restore the peace in 52 BC however, the faction saw a golden opportunity. Over the following months, they assiduously courted Pompey, the only man with the military might to help them. Ultimately, and against the initial wishes of the majority of the Senate, they were successful. Their actions, and Caesar’s refusal to stand down, precipitated the civil war.

  optio (pl. optiones): the officer who ranked immediately below a centurion; the second-in-command of a century.

  Orcus: the god of the underworld. Also known as Pluto or Hades, he was believed to be Jupiter’s brother, and was greatly feared.

  papaverum: the drug morphine. Made from the flowers of the opium plant, its use has been documented from at least 1000 BC. Roman doctors used it to allow them to perform prolonged operations on patients. Its use as a painkiller is my extension of that.

  Periplus (of the Erythraean Sea): a priceless historical document from approximately the first century AD. Clearly written by someone familiar with the area, the Periplus describes the navigation and trading opportunities along the entire coast of the Red Sea to eastern Africa and as far east as India. It details safe harbours, dangerous areas and the best places to buy valuable goods such as tortoiseshell, ivory and spices. I have changed its origins and contents slightly to fit in with the story.

  phalera (pl. phalerae): a sculpted disc-like decoration for bravery which was worn on a chest harness, over a Roman soldier’s armour. Phalerae were commonly made of bronze, but could be made of more precious metals as well. Torques, arm rings and bracelets were also awarded.

  pilum (pl. pila): the Roman javelin. It consisted of a wooden shaft approximately 1.2 m (4 ft) long, joined to a thin iron shank approximately 0.6 m (2 ft) long, and was topped by a small pyramidal point. The javelin was heavy and, when launched, all of its weight was concentrated behind the head, giving it tremendous penetrative force. It could strike through a shield to injure the man carrying it, or lodge in the shield, making it impossible for the man to continue using it. The range of the pilum was about 30 m (100 ft), although the effective range was probably about half this distance.

  Priapus: the god of gardens and fields, a symbol of fertility. Often pictured with a huge erect penis.

  primus pilus: the senior centurion of the whole legion, and possibly – probably – the senior centurion of the first cohort. A position of immense importance, it would have been held by a veteran soldier, typically in his forties or fifties. On retiring, the primus pilus was entitled to admission to the equestrian class.

  principia: the headquarters of a legion, to be found on the Via Praetoria. This was the beating heart of the legion in a marching camp or fort; it was where all the administration was carried out and where the unit’s standards, in particular the aquila or eagle, were kept. Its massive entrance opened on to a colonnaded and paved courtyard which was bordered on each side by offices. Behind this was a huge forehall with a high roof, which contained statues, the shrine for the standards, a vault for the legion’s pay and possibly more offices. It is likely that parades took place here, and that senior officers addressed their men in the hall.

  proconsul: the governor of a Roman province, such as Spain or Cisalpine Gaul, of consular rank. Other provinces, e.g. Sicily and Sardinia, had slightly lower-ranking praetors to govern them. Such posts were held by those who had previously served as consuls or praetors in Rome.

  pugio: a dagger. Some Roman soldiers carried this, an extra weapon. It was probably as useful in daily life (for eating and preparing food etc.) as when on campaign.

  retiarius (pl. retiarii): the fisherman, or net and trident fighter, named after the rete, or net. Also an easily recognisable class of gladiator, the retiarius wore only a subligaria. His sole protection consisted of the galerus, a metal shoulder-guard, which was attached to the top edge of a manica on his left arm. His weapons were the weighted net, a trident and a dagger. With less equipment to weigh him down, the retiarius was far more mobile than many other gladiators and, lacking a helmet, was also instantly recognisable. This may have accounted for the low status of this class of fighter.

  rudis: the wooden gladius which symbolised the freedom that could be granted to a gladiator who pleased a sponsor sufficiently, or who had earned enough victories in the arena to qualify for it. Not all gladiators were condemned to die in combat: prisoners of war and criminals usually were, but slaves who had committed a crime were granted the rudis if they survived for three years as a gladiator. After a further two years, they could be set free.

  Samnite: a class of fighter based on the Samnite people who occupied the central Apennines, but were finally defeated by Rome in the third century BC. Some accounts describe them with triple-disc metal breastplates, but other depictions have the Samnites bare-chested. Plumed helmets and greaves were common, as was the typical wide gladiatorial belt. Carrying round or rectangular shields, they usually fought with spears.

  scutum (pl. scuta): an elongated oval Roman army shield, about 1.2 m (4 ft) tall and 0.75 m (2 ft 6 in) wide. It was made from two layers of wood, the pieces laid at right angles to each other; it was then covered with linen or canvas, and leather. The scutum was heavy, weighing between 6 and 10 kgs (13–22 lbs). A large metal boss decorated its centre, with the horizontal grip placed behind this. Decorative designs were often painted on the front, and a leather cover was used to protect the shield when not in use, e.g. while marching.

  scythicon: the poison used by
Scythians on their arrows, the purported recipe for which has survived in the historical record. Small snakes were killed and left to decompose, while vessels full of human blood were buried in dung until the contents putrefied. Then the liquid from the jars was mixed with the substances from the rotted snakes to make a poison that, according to Ovid, when applied to a hooked arrowhead ‘promises a double death’.

  secutor (pl secutores): the pursuer, or hunter class of gladiator. Also called the contraretiarius, the secutor fought the fisherman, the retiarius. Virtually the only difference between the secutor and the murmillo was the smooth-surfaced helmet, which was without a brim and had a small, plain crest, probably to make it more difficult for the retiarius’ net to catch and hold. Unlike other types of gladiator, the secutor’s helmet had small eyeholes, making it very difficult to see. This was possibly to reduce the chances of the heavily armoured fighter quickly overcoming the retiarius.

  sestertius (pl. sestertii): a brass coin, it was worth four asses; or a quarter of a denarius; or one hundredth of an aureus. Its name, ‘two units and a half third one’, comes from its original value, two and a half asses. By the time of the late Roman Republic, its use was becoming more common.

  signifer: a standard-bearer and junior officer. This was a position of high esteem, with one for every century in a legion. Often the signifer wore scale armour and an animal pelt over his helmet, which sometimes had a hinged decorative face piece, while he carried a small, round shield rather than a scutum. His signum, or standard, consisted of a wooden pole bearing a raised hand, or a spear tip surrounded by palm leaves. Below this was a crossbar from which hung metal decorations, or a piece of coloured cloth. The standard’s shaft was decorated with discs, half-moons, ships’ prows and crowns, records of the unit’s achievements and which may have distinguished one century from another.